AT   LOS  ANGELES 


L 


REPORTS 


OF    THE 


COMMITTEE  ON  TAXATION 


OF    THE 


,  ITIZENS'  ASSOCIATION 

I — — -— ' 


OF    CHICAGO 


Made  Septemtier  26tli,  1874,  and  DecemDer  3d,  1874. 


V     A    L       t  / 


CHICAGO  : 

ITED  BY  DIRECTION  OF  THE  EXECUTIVE  COMMimE  OF  THE  CITIZENS'  ASSOCIATION. 

1874. 


(It     ttt     ct 


"« •    •  •  •« 


701 

(^4- 


FIRST  REPORT. 


To  tJie  Executive  Committee  of  the  Citizens  Association  of 
Chicago: 

The  Committee  on  Taxation  appointed  by  you,  beg  leave  to 
submit  the  following  preliminary  Report : 

The  subject  of  taxation  is  so  vast  and  complex  that  it  would 
be  the  work  of  years  rather  than  of  days  to  examine  carefully 
and  discuss  fully  its  many  branches  and  the  various  questions 
connected  with  it. 

But  there  are  so  many  and  such  serious  defects  in  the  tax 
system  now  in  operation  in  Chicago  that  your  committee  deem 
it  advisable  to  call  attention  at  once  to  some  of  its  most  pal- 
pable evils,  and  to  suggest  remedies  for  them,  reserving  more 
intricate  matters  for  the  fuller  consideration  which  they  demand. 

UNEQUAL     ASSESSMENTS    OF    VALUATION. 

The  gravest  of  these  evils  and  that  which  works  the  greatest 
injustice,  is  the  wide  inequality  in  the  assessments  of  valuation, 
particularly  those  upon  which  state,  county  and  town  taxes  are 
based.  In  consequence  of  this  inequality,  some  individuals 
pay  a  two,  three,  and  in  some  instances  ten-fold  greater  tax  in 
proportion  to  the  real  value  of  their  property,  than  other 
owners  in  the  same  town.  That  this  is  not  an  over  statement, 
the  following  instances,  carefully  verified  by  your  committee, 
will  testify.  They  all  occur  in  the  assessment  for  1873,  upon 
which  taxes  are  now  being  paid. 

In  one  town  its  Assessor  assessed  one  very  valuable  piece  of 
improved  business  property  at  a  little  less  than  six  per  cent,  of 
its  real  value,  another  large  tract,  docked,  and  used  for  lumber 
yards  at  twenty  per  cent,  of  its  real  value,  and  still  another 
large  and  valuable  property,  built  up  with  residences,  at  ninety 
per   cent,   of   its   real  value.      The  Assessor  in   another  town 


valued  a  piece  of  improved  business  property  at  six  per  cent. 
of  its  value,  a  residence  at  sixteen  per  cent,  of  its  value,  and  a 
vacant  lot  at  sixty  per  cent,  of  its  value.  These  towns  are 
both  situated  within  the  city  limits,  but  in  one  of  the  towns 
adjoining  the  city,  while  two  tracts  of  land  were  assessed  at 
OTi\y  four  and  five  per  cent,  of  their  respective  values,  other  tracts 
were  assessed  at  nearly,  if  not  quite,  their  full  values.  And  in 
one  of  the  remoter  towns  in  Cook  county,  the  Assessor  valued 
all  of  the  land  in  it  at  a  uniform  rate  per  acre,  although  he 
must  have  known  that  the  value  of  the  farms  in  that  town 
varied  from  thirty  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  per  acre. 
These  are  not  isolated  instances,  and  your  committee  believe 
that  they  fairly  illustrate  the  existing  modes  of  assessment  for 
purposes  of  taxation  in  many,  if  not  all,  of  the  towns  in  this 
county,  the  records  of  which  will  show  numerous  similar  cases 
of  excessive  over,  and  under,  valuation. 

NO  REMEDY  FROM  COUNTY  BOARD. 

The  County  Board  of  Equalization  furnishes  no  remedy  for 
this  state  of  things.  So  numerous  and  great  are  these  discrep- 
ancies that  to  adjust  a  single  assessment  equitably  between  the 
individual  property  owners  in  this  county,  would  require  the 
Equalizing  Board  to  be  in  session  an  entire  year.  Nor  would 
justice  then  be  done  unless  the  members  of  the  board  were 
familiar  with  the  true  value  of  every  piece  of  property  in  the 
county,  a  thing  which  is  simply  impossible  with  our  present 
revenue  machinery. 

It  is  possible  for  this  county  board  to  equalize  the  assess- 
ment of  valuation  for  town,  county  and  state  purposes,  between 
the  different  towns  with  some  approach  to  fairness.  Yet  in  so 
doing,  the  injustice  to  individuals  is  only  aggravated.  It  was 
ascertained  that  in  some  of  the  towns  in  this  county  the 
assessment  of  real  estate  for  a  particular  year  did  not  average 
more  than  ten  per  cent,  of  the  real  value,  while  in  other  towns 
for  the  same  year  it  Avas  sixty  per  cent. 

Assuming  that  the  average  assessment  of  realty  for  the  whole 
county  was  forty  per  cent,  of  the  true  value  for  that  year, 
equalization  between  the  two  classes  of  towns  designated  can 
be  made  by  multiplying  the  assessment  in  the  first  by  four, 
and  reducing  it  by  one-third  in   the  other.      But  in  the  first 


class  of  towns  the  property  of  many  individuals  was  assessed 
at  thirty  per  cent,  of  its  value,  and  that  of  others  at  only  five 
per  cent.,  making  the  average  valuation  of  the  town  ten  per 
cent,  of  what  the  property  in  it  was  really  worth.  When  you 
multiply  by  four  to  equalize  between  the  two  classes  of  towns, 
you  make  some  owners  pay  upon  one  hundred  and  twenty  per 
cent,  of  their  property,  or  one-fifth  more  than  it  is  worth,  while 
those  assessed  at  five  per  cent,  originally,  still  pay  only  upon 
one-half  of  the  proper  value.  And  when  the  State  Board  of 
Equalization  repeats  this  proceeding  upon  a  large  scale  in  its 
attempts  to  adjust  the  valuation  as  between  counties,  the  wrong 
in  many  cases,  becomes  enormous. 

The  vital  error  lies  in  the  inequality  in  the  original  assess- 
ment of  valuation. 

NO    HOPE    OF    RELIEF    UNDER    PRESENT    SYSTEM. 

There  is  little  hope  of  relief  from  this  great  wrong  while  the 
present  method  of  selecting  the  men  who  make  these  original 
assessments  continues. 

The  assessors  chosen  at  town  meetings  are  usually  ignorant 
of  the  duties  to  be  performed,  and  not  always  incorruptible. 
And  even  if  they  were  competent  and  honest,  it  would  be 
impossible  for  them  in  any  of  the  three  towns  in  the  city  of 
Chicago,  to  make  a  fair  assessment  in  the  limited  time  within 
which  they  are  required  by  law  to  do  their  work. 

JUDICIOUS    LEGISLATION    THE    ONLY    REMEDY. 

Your  committee  believe  that  the  only  adequate  remedy  for 
these   evils   will  be  found  in  judicious  legislation  by  the  State. 

In  the  first  place,  the  township  organization,  in  Cook  county, 
should  be  done  away  with,  it  being,  in  this  city  at  any  rate, 
utterly  useless  and  vicious.  Then  there  should  be  but  one 
valuation  of  property,  on  the  basis  of  which,  all  taxes  for  city, 
county  and  State  should  be  levied. 

This  would  dispense  with  one-half  of  the  present  machinery 
and  expense  in  conducting  this  business.  A  Supervisor  of 
Revenue  for  the  county  should  be  appointed,  whose  duty  it 
should  be  to  procure  perfect  maps  and  plats  of  all  the  lands, 
blocks,  lots  and  sub-lots  in  the  county,  upon  a  large  scale, 
and  a  complete  set  of  books  in  which  should  be  entered  the 
character  of  the  improvements  upon  each  tract  or  lot,  and  the 


6 

date  and  consideration  of  one  or  more  of  its  most  recent 
transfers.  Where  practicable  these  data  should  be  noted  upon 
the  face  of  the  maps.  With  this  information  before  him,  the 
Revenue  Supervisor  could  readily  compare  the  assessment  with 
the  real  value  of  each  piece  of  property,  and  note  the  addition 
or  reduction  necessary  in  each  case,  to  bring  it  to  the  average 
valuation.  His  conclusions  he  should  be  required  to  report  to 
the  Equalizing  Board,  which  should  have  the  power  to  confirm 
them  without  notice  to  owners  of  property  as  to  which  changes 
may  be  made.  But  these  books  should  be  open  to  the 
inspection  of  any  tax  payer  on  every  business  day  in  the  year, 
that  all  may  see  that  no  injustice  is  done. 

This  Revenue  Officer  should  appoint  all  of  his  assistant 
assessors  and  clerks,  and  be  held  strictly  accountable  for  their 
official  acts.  His  term  of  office  should  be  for  a  reasonably 
long  period  of  time,  he  being  subject,  of  course,  to  removal 
for  malfeasance  in  office.  The  more  experience  had  by  such 
officer  and  his  assistants,  the  more  valuable  would  be  their 
services,  and  each  succeeding  year  would  enable  them  to  more 
and  more  nearly  approach  to  exact  justice  to  each  tax  payer. 

Under  our  State  Constitution,  laws  must  be  general  in  their 
application,  but  if  the  proposed  plan  for  obtaining  an  honest 
and  fair  valuation  of  taxable  property  is  not  desired  by  the 
less  populous  counties,  the  system  can  be  confined  to  such 
counties  as  have  a  population  exceeding  a  given  number, 
which  can  be  made  so  large  as  to  apply  only  to  the  county 
of  Cook,  if  no  others  wish  to  adopt  it. 

SUBJECT    OF    FUTURE    REPORTS. 

The  defects  in  our  General  Revenue  Law  which  affect  State 
taxation,  and  its  provisions  relating  to  the  State  Board  of 
Equalization,  the  questions  of  general  or  special  assessments 
for  local  improvements,  and  direct  or  indirect  taxation,  and 
such  other  topics  as  may  come  within  the  province  of  this 
committee  may  be  tlie  subjects  of  future  reports,  should  it 
seem  advisable. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

A.  J.  Galloway, 

E.  G.  Mason, 

Robert  Law. 
Chica^^o,  Sept.  26,  18J4. 


SECOND  REPORT. 


To  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Citizens'  Association  of 
Chicago  : 

The  Committee  on  Taxation  appointed  by  you  made  a  pre- 
liminary report  on  the  26th  of  September  last,  in  which  some 
of  the  most  obvious  evils  of  the  present  system  of  levying  and 
collecting  taxes  in  our  city  were  pointed  out,  and  remedies  for 
the  same  were  suggested.  That  report  was  re-committed  to 
the  Committee  on  October  15,  with  instructions  to  make  a  fur- 
ther report  as  to  the  best  and  most  feasible  methods,  in  their 
judgment,  of  carrying  out  their  suggestions.  Since  that  time 
the  Committee  have  carefully  considered  their  former  proposi- 
tions, have  had  before  them  the  views  in  writing  of  different 
persons  conversant  with  the  subject,  and  have  availed  them- 
selves of  the  best  assistance  which  they  could  obtain,  as  will 
more  fully  appear  herein.     It  will  be  remembered  that 

THE    REFORMS    PROPOSED 

were  the  abolition  of  township  organization  and  uniform  valua- 
tion of  property  under  the  control  of  a  single  officer,  appointed 
for  such  a  term  and  with  such  powers  as  would  most  judi- 
ciously accomplish  this  result.  Taking  these  suggestions  in 
order,  your  Committee  would  observe  that  upon  mature  reflec- 
tion they  are  fully  convinced  of  the  propriety  and  importance 
of  their  recommendation,  that  township  organization  should 
be  done  away  with.  Recent  events  confirm  this  conclusion,  if 
confirmation  were  necessary.  We  characterized  this  system  in 
our  previous  report  as  utterly  useless  and  vicious.  We  might 
add  that  it  is  a  great  and  unnecessary  expense,  that  it  stands  in 
the  way  of  almost  any  tax  reform,  and  that  by  its  abolition  we 
can  secure  a  system  more  economical  and  effective,  and  under 
which  the  desired  improvements  in  our  modes  of  taxation  can 
more  readily  be  obtained.  It  remains  only  to  determine 
whether  there  are  any  legal  obstacles  to  making  this  change, 

(7) 


8 

and  if  not,  in  what  way  it  can  be  brought  about.  There  has 
been  so  much  discussion  upon  the  subject,  and  it  is  in  some 
respects  so  involved,  that,  to  properly  understand  it,  it  seems 
advisable  to  briefly  sketch  the  history  of 

TOWNSHIP    ORGANIZATION    IN    COOK    COUNTY. 

Under  the  constitution  of  1848,  two  classes  of  counties 
existed  in  Illinois.  The  first  class  comprised  those  counties 
not  adopting  township  organization,  which  were  not  divided  into 
towns,  and  in  which  all  the  business  of  each  part  of  the  county 
was  transacted  by  the  County  Court.  The  second  class  com- 
prised those  counties  adopting  township  organization,  which 
were  divided  into  townships  or  towns,  each  of  which  was  a  body 
corporate,  managing  its  own  affairs  and  with  its  own  officers, 
comprising  a  Supervisor,  Town  Clerk,  Assessor,  Collector,  Jus- 
tice of  the  Peace,  and  other  minor  officials.  And  in  counties 
of  the  second  class  general  county  affairs  were  managed  by  a 
Board  of  Supervisors,  made  up  of  the  Supervisors  elected  from 
the  several  towns  and  city  wards  in  the  county.  Each  county 
was  a  body  corporate  by  itself,  whether  divided  into  towns  or 
not.  Cook  county  belonged  to  the  second  class,  namely,  those 
adopting  township  organization,  and  at  the  time  of  the  assem- 
bling of  the  last  Constitutional  Convention  its  citizens  were 
dissatisfied  with  its  Board  of  Supervisors,  There  was  a  general 
desire  for  a  change  in  the  management  of  the  general  county 
affairs,  and  our  delegates  were  anxious  to  bring  it  about.  In 
the  Convention  there  was  little  or  no  discussion  upon  the  mat- 
ter, all  propositions  relating  to  it  being  referred  to  the  Cook 
county  delegation.  The  result  of  their  deliberations,  which  the 
Convention  adopted,  was  the  section  establishing  a  Board  of 
Fifteen  Commissioners  to  manage  the  affairs  of  Cook  county. 
All  of  the  provisions  of  our  present  constitution  which  relate  to 
county  government  are  comprised  in  article  ten,  and  are  as  fol- 
lows : 

COUNTY    GOVERNMENT. 

Section  5.  The  General  Assembly  shall  provide,  by  general 
law,  for  township  organization,  under  which  any  county  may 
organize  whenever  a  majority  of  the  legal  voters  of  such  county, 
voting  at  any  general  election,  shall  so  determine,  and  when- 


ever  any  county  shall  adopt  township  organization,  so  much  of 
this  constitution  as  provides  for  the  management  of  the  fiscal 
concerns  of  the  said  county  by  the  board  of  county  commis- 
sioners, may  be  dispensed  with,  and  the  affairs  of  said  county 
may  be  transacted  in  such  manner  as  the  general  assembly 
may  provide.  And  in  any  county  that  shall  have  adopted  a 
township  organization,  the  question  of  continuing  the  same  may 
be  submitted  to  a  vote  of  the  electors  of  such  county,  at  a  gen- 
eral election,  in  the  manner  that  now  is  or  may  be  provided  by 
law;  and  if  a  majority  of  all  the  votes  cast  upon  that  question 
shall  be  against  township  organization,  then  such  organization 
shall  cease  in  said  county ;  and  all  laws  in  force  in  relation  to 
counties  not  having  township  'organization,  shall  immediately 
take  effect  and  be  in  force  in  such  county.  No  two  townships 
shall  have  the  same  name,  and  the  day  of  holding  the  annual 
township  meeting  shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  State. 

Sec.  6.  At  the  first  election  of  county  judges  under"^th  s 
constitution,  there  shall  be  elected  in  each  of  the  counties  in 
this  state,  not  under  township  organization,  three  officers  who 
shall  be  styled  "The  Board  of  county 'commissioners,"  who 
shall  hold  sessions  for  the  transaction  of  county  business  as 
shall  be  provided  by  law.  One  of  said  commissioners  shall 
hold  his  office  for  one  year,  one  for  two  years,  and  one  for  three 
years,  to  be  determined  by  lot ;  and  every  year  thereafter  one 
such  officer  shall  be  elected  in  each  of  said  counties  for  the 
term  of  three  years. 

Sfx".  7.  The  county  affairs  of  Cook  county  shall  be  man- 
aged by  a  board  of  commissioners  of  fifteen  persons,  ten  of 
whom  shall  be  elected  from  the  city  of  Chicago,  and  five  from 
towns  outside  of  said  city,  in  such  manner  as  shall  be  provided 
by  law. 

The  common  understanding  of  the  effect  of  these  provisions 
has  been  that  so  far  as  Cook  county  is  concerned  township 
organization  was  continued  therein  as  previously  e.xisting,  but 
with  the  substitution  of  a  Board  of  Fifteen  Commissioners  for 
the  old  Board  of  Supervisors.  It  is  well  known  that  this  was 
the  only  object  at  that  time  desired  to  be  accomplished  by  the 
people  of  Cook  county,  and  all  of  our  delegates  to  the  Con- 
vention whom  your  committee  have  been  able  to  see,  agree  in 


10 

the  statement   that   this   was   the   sole    intention  of  the  Cook 
county  delegation   and  of  the  Convention. 

Upon  this  view  all  concerned  have  acted  since  the  adoption  of 
the  constitution  of  1870,  and  our  Legislature  seems  to  recognize 
it  as  the  correct  one,  in  the  act  of  April  22,  1871,  which  pro- 
vides that  "  the  Cook  county  Commissioners  shall  have  the 
same  powers,  duties,  etc.,  as  prescribed  by  laiv  for  the  Board 
of  Supervisors"  and  in  the  revision  of  1874,  which  provides 
that  "  all  laws  applicable  to  the  County  Clerks  of  other  counties 
under  township  organization,  shall  be  applicable  to  the  County 
Clerk  of  Cook  county."  R.  S.  1874,  p.  312,  §§60-63.  And 
your  committtee  believe  this  to  be  the  present  status  of  the 
system  of  township  organization  in  the  county  of  Cook. 

TOWNSHIP    ORGANIZATION    CAN    BE    ABOLISHED. 

It  follows,  therefore,  in  our  opinion,  that  it  is  as  competent 
now  for  the  people  of  the  county  to  abolish  this  system  as  it 
was  under  the  constitution  of  1848.  We  are  aware  that  the 
opinion  is  entertained  by  some  that  the  system  in  question  was 
in  fact  abolished  by  the  constitution  of  1870  in  this  county. 
This  proceeds  upon  the  assumption  that  there  are  but  two 
classes  of  counties  recognized  in  the  new  constitution,  one  under 
the  commissioner  system,  and  one  under  township  organization; 
and  that  Cook  county,  being  placed  under  the  government  of 
Commissioners,  must  wholly  belong  to  the  commissioner  system 
class,  and  can  therefore  have  nothing  to  do  with  township 
organization,  which  by  implication  must  have  been  abolished 
within  its  limits.  The  error  here  lies  in  overlooking  the  fact 
that  the  constitution  nowhere  limits  the  number  of  classes  of 
counties,  and  does  practically  create  a  third  class,  in  which  the 
old  township  organization  was  continued,  except  as  to  the  Board 
of  Supervisors,  for  which  a  substitute  was  provided,  to  which 
third  class  Cook  county  alone  belongs.  The  absence  of  any 
evidence  of  intention  to  abolish  township  organization  here,  and 
of  any  express  provision  upon  the  subject  in  the  constitution, 
and  tlie  recognition  of  its  continuance  in  the  provision  that  five  oj 
Commissioners  shall  be  elected  from  the  towns  outside  of  the 
the  city,  are  also  reasons  conclusive  to  our  minds  as  to  the  incor- 
rectness of  tins  opinion. 

An  argument  has  also  been   made  to  show  that  the  existing 


11 

condition  of  things  in  this  regard  was,  by  the  constitution,  ren- 
dered irrevocable.  This  reasoning  recognizes  the  continuance 
of  the  township  system  in  Cook  county  by  the  constitution,  and 
finding  no  express  provision  for  its  aboHtion  here,  infers  that  it 
cannot  be  done  away  with.  It  is  urged  that  section  five  of  arti- 
cle ten  provides  that  when  township  organization  ceases  in  a 
county,  all  laws  in  force  in  counties  not  having  township  organi- 
zation shall  take  effect,  and  that  section  six  provides  that  coun- 
ties not  under  township  organization  shall  have  three  Commis- 
sioners, of  whom,  after  the  first  election,  one  shall  be  elected 
each  year,  and  hold  office  for  three  years,  and  that  the  laws 
enacted  to  carry  out  these  sections  make  the  same  provisions. 
Hence,  as  Cook  county  has  already  a  Board  of  Fifteen  Commis- 
sioners, it  is  argued  that  the  change  provided  by  the  constitu- 
tion, being  from  township  organization  to  a  government  bv 
three  commissioners,  cannot  be  made  here ;  that,  therefore, 
sections  five  and  six  have  no  application  in  Cook  county,  and  that 
section  seven  finally  disposes  of  the  matter  for  us.  But  it  seems 
to  your  committee  that  the  accepted  rule  of  construction  which 
requires  all  of  the  provisions  of  a  statute  relating  to  one  subject 
to  be  so  read  as  to  be  consistent  and  harmonious  throughout 
furnishes  a  sufficient  answer  to  this  theory. 

The  three  sections  referred  to,  can  be  read  together  without 
violence  to  their  spirit  or  language,  so  as  to  entirely  harmonize, 
by  treating  section  seven  as  a  modification  of  sections  five  and 
six,  so  far  as  Cook  county  is  concerned.  Their  plain  meaning, 
then,  will  be  that  township  organization  may  be  abolished  in 
any  county  which  has  adopted  it,  including  Cook  county,  and 
the  laws  concerning  counties  not  under  township  organization 
will  come  in  force,  except  so  far  as  they  are  modified  in  the  case 
of  Cook  county  by  section  seven.  It  seems  a  necessary  infer- 
ence, from  the  fact  that  the  constitution  has  made  the  govern- 
ment of  Cook  county  an  exception  to  the  general  provisions 
governing  counties,  that  all  such  general  requirements  when 
applied  to  this  county  must  be  construed  in  accordance  with 
the  special  provisions  relating  to  it.  Hence  a  vote  of  the  peo- 
ple of  Cook  county,  at  a  general  election,  dispensing  with  town- 
ship organization,  would  not  vest  the  control  of  the  county  and 
township  affairs  in  three  Commissioners,  provided  for  other 
counties,  but  in  the  fifteen  Commissioners  provided  in  Cook 


12 

county.  It  is  possible  that  it  may  be  well  to  obtain  an  amend- 
ment to  the  existing  statute  upon  township  organization,  to 
remove  any  doubt  as  to  the  immediate  succession  of  our  present 
Board  of  Commissioners  to  the  present  town  governments,  in 
case  the  township  system  is  discontinued.  But  we  do  not  con- 
sider any  legislation  necessary  to  enable  the  people  of  our 
county  to  effect  such  discontinuance,  and  as  to  the 

METHOD    OF    ABOLISHING    TOWNSHIP    ORGANIZATIONS, 

we  are  glad  to  be  able  to  submit  herewith  an  opinion  on  this 
subject,  kindly  prepared  at  their  request,  by  the  chairman  of 
your  committee  on  municipal  organization,  M.  F.  Tuley,  Esq., 
whose  views  must  carry  with  them  the  greatest  weight. 


OPINION   BY   M.  F.  TULEY,  ESQ. 

To  A.  J.  Galloway,  Chairman  Committee  on  Taxation : 

You  ask  my  opinion  as  to  the  best  and  most  feasible  way  of 
getting  rid  of  township  organization  in  Chicago.  Every  person 
who  has  given  the  subject  any  attention  must  admit  that  a  large 
city  has  no  more  need  of  township  organization  than  a  common 
road  wagon  has  of  five  wheels.  It  is  not  only  a  great  burden 
upon  the  tax  payers,  but  it  has  become  an  intolerable  nuisance- 
The  General  Assembly  of  the  State  made  an  attempt  at  its  last 
session  to  abolish  the  most  objectionable  feature  of  it,  to-wit ; 
the  voting  of  money  for  town  purposes  by  the  annual  town 
meetings,  by  conferring  the  power  to  fix  the  amounts  to  be  ex- 
pended by  the  towns  upon  the  Board  of  County  Commission- 
ers ;  but,  in  my  opinion,  as  long  as  the  township  organization 
system  is  maintained,  any  law  which  takes  away  from  the  peo- 
ple or  the  town  authorities  the  power  to  appropriate  and  levy 
the  town  taxes,  is  unconstitutional  and  void.  It  is  difficult  to 
perceive  how  township  organization  can  be  made  one  thing  in 
cities  and  a  different  thing  in  the  country,  and  not  be  subject  to 
constitutional  objections.  After  mature  reflection  I  can  per- 
ceive no  way  in  which,  by  amendment  of  the  present  law,  or 
otherwise,  township  organization  can  be  maintained  for  any  pur. 
pose   in    large  cities,  and    at    the   same   time  the  voters   of  the 


13 


towns,  or  the  town  authorities,  be  deprived  of  the  power  to  im- 
pose taxes  for  town  purposes.  The  new  constitution  of  1870 
guarantees  the  right  to  all  counties  to  discontinue  township  or- 
ganization if  the  voters  desire  to  do  so.  It  provides  by  Sec.  5, 
Art.  10,  "that  in  any  county  that  shall  have  adopted  township 
organization,  the  question  of  continuing  the  same  may  be  sub- 
mitted to  a  vote  of  the  electors  of  such  county  at  a  general 
election  in  the  manner  that  now  is  or  may  be  provided  by  law.'' 
The  General  Assembly  in  the  township  organization  act  in  force 
March  4,  1874,  made  the  following  provisions  for  an  election 
upon  the  question  of  discontinuing  township  organization  : 

"Section  i.  Art.  2.  Upon  the  petition  of  at  least  one- 
fifth  of  the  legal  voters  of  any  county  having  adopted  township 
organization,  to  be  ascertained  by  the  vote  cast  at  the  last  pre- 
ceding Presidential  election,  the  county  board  shall  cause  to  be 
submitted  to  the  voters  of  such  county,  at  the  next  general 
election,  the  question  of  the  continuance  of  township  organiza- 
tion, to  be  voted  on  by  ballots  written  or  printed,  or  partly 
written  or  printed,  '  For  the  continuance  of  township  organiza- 
tion,' or  'Against  the  continuance  of  township  organization, 
notice  to  be  given  and  the  votes  to  be  canvassed  and  returns 
made  in  like  manner  as  in  this  Act  provided  in  reference  to  a 
vote  on  the  adoption  of  township  organization. 

"Sec.  2.  If  it  shall  appear  by  the  returns  of  said  election 
that  a  majority  of  the  votes  cast  on  that  question  at  said  elec- 
tion are  against  the  continuance  of  township  organization,  then 
such  organization  shall  cease  in  said  county  as  soon  as  a  county 
board  is  elected  and  qualified ;  and  all  laws  relating  to  counties 
not  under  township  organization  shall  be  applicable  to  such 
county  the  same  as  if  township  organization  had  never  been 
adopted  in  it." 

A  question  has  been  raised  as  to  whether  the  law  in  question 
and  also  the  constitutional  provision  quoted,  are  applicable  to 
Cook  county;  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  constitu- 
tion itself,  so  far  as  the  county  board  of  fifteen  commissioners 
is  concerned,  makes  an  exception  in  favor  of  Cook  county.  It 
is  not  to  be  presumed  that  the  framers  of  the  constitution  in- 
tended to  except  Cook  county  from  the  benefit  of  the  provision 
authorizing  counties  to  discontinue  township  organization,  nor 
that  the   General   Assembly  did   not   intend   to   include   Cook 


14 


county  in  the  law  passed  to  carry  out  that  constitutional  pro- 
vision. I  am  satisfied  that  no  such  absurd  construction  would 
be  placed  thereon  by  the  courts. 

An  election  can  be  had,  and  township  organization  can  be 
discontinued,  in  iBy  opinion,  under  the  law  as  it  now  stands. 
A  discontinuance  of  township  organization  may  be  objected  to 
by  some  of  the  country  towns;  but  as  many  of  them,  like 
Hyde  Park,  Cicero,  Lake  View,  and  others,  are  acting  under 
special  charters,  or  under  the  general  incorporation  act  for  cities 
and  villages,  and  as  most  of  the  other  towns  are  sufficiently 
densely  populated  to  enable  them  to  organize  as  villages  under 
that  act,  no  great  opposition  from  the  outside  towns  should  be 
expected.  In  Cicero  and  Lake,  and  probably  other  towns  act- 
ing under  special  charters,  the  supervisor  and  town  assessor  and 
collector  are  all,  or  some  one  or  more  of  them,  made  ex-officio 
members  of  the  board  of  trustees  of  the  town. 

It  should  be  seen  to  that  a  law  be  passed  to  prevent  any  diffi- 
culty arising  in  such  towns  by  the  discontinuance  of  township 
organization  throughout  the  county.  When  township  organiza- 
tion shall  be  abolished  in  Cook  county,  the  county  will  come 
under  the  laws  applicable  to  counties  not  under  township  or- 
ganization. One  great  benefit  from  the  change  will  be  that  we 
will  have  biit  one  assessor  for  the  whole  county,  and  the  great 
irregularities  in  the  assessment  of  property  necessarily  resulting 
from  the  great  number  of  assessors  under  the  township  organi- 
zation system  will  be  avoided.  The  sheriff  will  be  ex-officio 
county  collector.  There  will  be  great  economy  in  dispensing 
with  the  township  organization  system.  I  might  mention  also 
the  fact  that  no  appropriation  could  be  made  for  the  erection 
of  a  court  house  or  other  public  building  without  first  submit- 
ting the  same  to  a  vote  of  the  people  of  the  county. 

Respectfully,  M.  F,  Tuley. 


Your  committee  will  only  add,  in  this  connection,  that  the 
total  vote  of  this  county  cast  at  the  last  preceding  presidential 
election  was,  in  round  numbers,  50,300,  and  that  it  will  there- 
fore be  necessary  to  present  a  petition  signed  by  at  least  10,060 


15 

of  the  legal  voters  of  this  county  to  the  county  board,  to  obtain 
a  submission  to  the  voters  of  the  county  at  the  next  general 
election  of  the  question  of  the  continuance  of  township  organi- 
zation. Such  election  will  take  place  on  the  first  Tuesday  after 
the  first  Monday  in  November  in  the  year  1875. 

UNIFORM    VALUATION    OF    PROPERTY    UNDER    ONE    REVENUE 

OFFICER. 

The  second  suggestion  of  your  committee  in  their  previous 
report  was  that  there  should  be  but  one  valuation  of  property, 
on  the  basis  of  which  all  taxes  for  city,  county  and  State  pur- 
poses should  be  levied,  and  that  there  should  be  a  single  reve- 
nue officer,  or  assessor,  for  the  county,  with  power  to  appoint 
assistant  assessors  and  clerks,  holding  office  for  a  reasonably 
long  period,  whose  duty  it  should  be  to  procure  perfect  maps 
of  all  real  estate  in  the  county,  and  to  keep  a  complete  set  of 
books  showing  the  character  of  the  im.provements  on  each  tract 
or  lot  and  the  date  and  consideration  of  one  or  more  of  its 
most  recent  transfers,  and  by  whom  all  assessments  should  be 
made,  subject  to  the  revision  of  the  county- equalization  board. 
The  abolition  of  township  organization  is  the  first  step  to  this 
end.  A  return  to  the  other  system  gives  us  one  assessor  for  the 
whole  county,  which  office,  in  counties  not  under  township  or- 
ganization, is,  under  the  present  law,  held  by  the  county  trea- 
surer, ex-offi.cio.  To  secure  from  this  officer  the  uniform  and 
accurate  valuation  desired,  we  should  deem  it  advisable  to  ask 
for  legislation ;  and  the  law  defining  his  duties,  and  fixing  his 
term  of  office  in  Cook  county,  can  be  made  to  take  effect  when 
the  people  of  the  county  have  decided  by  a  legal  vote  to  dis- 
pense with  the  existing  system. 

PROPER    LEGISLATION    CAN    BE    OBTAINED    UNDER    THE 

CONSTITUTION. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  some  able  lawyers,  that  the  county  of 
Cook,  having  been  excepted  from  some  of  the  general  provi- 
sions which  apply  to  counties  and  townships  in  the  rest  of  the 
State,  is  therefore  not  subject  to  the  restriction  contained  in  the 
sixth  clause  of  Sec.  22,  Art.  IV.,  of  the  constitution  of  1870, 
that  the  constitution  recognizes  the  fact  that  the  county  of 
Cook,  containing  a  great   commercial   city,  must   have   special 


16 

provisions  for  its  government;  and  that  vve  are  fully  justified  in 
asking  and  obtaining  any  special  legislation  which  the  pecu- 
liarities of  our  position  or  condition  as  a  municipality  may  re- 
quire. It  is  very  much  to  be  regretted  that  a  power  so  essential 
to  the  well-being  of  municipal  corporations  should  have  been 
made  to  depend  upon  implied  powers ;  and  an  amendment  to 
the  State  constitution,  expressly  exempting  all  municipal  cor- 
porations from  this  oppressive  restriction,  would  have  a  very 
salutary  effect.  Two  or  three  States  which  have  revised  their 
constitutions  since  the  adoption  of  ours,  have — in  following  our 
provisions  against  special  legislation — had  the  wisdom  to  exempt 
their  municipal  corporations  from  this  restricting  clause. 

But  to  avoid  all  risk  or  uncertainty  in  the  premises,  your  com- 
mittee deem  it  advisable  to  recommend  that  the  legislation 
asked  for  be  in  accordance  with  the  suggestions  in  their  pre- 
liminary report  of  September  26th. 

LEVY    OF    CITY    TAXES    ON    COUNTY    VALUATION. 

When  a  single  assessment  for  State  and  county  purposes  has 
been  established  in^he  method  proposed,  our  city  revenue  can 
also  be  based  upon  it,  and  thus  a  uniform  valuation  for  all  pur- 
poses of  taxation  made  complete.  The  general  act  for  the  in- 
corporation of  cities  and  villages,  approved  April  10,  1872, 
provides  that  the  city  council  may  levy  and  assess  the  amount 
of  the  yearly  appropriations  upon  the  property  within  the  city 
subject  to  taxation,  as  the  same  is  assessed  for  State  and  county 
purposes  for  the  current  year.  The  tax  so  assessed  shall  be 
collected  and  enforced  in  the  same  manner,  and  by  the  same 
officers,  as  State  and  county  taxes,  and  shall  be  paid  over  by 
the  officers  collecting  the  same  to  the  treasurer  of  the  city. 
R.  S.  1874,  p.  231.  The  act  in  regard  to  the  assessment  of 
property  and  the  levy  and  collection  of  taxes  by  incorporated 
cities,  approved  April  15th,  1873,  provides,  however,  for  an  as- 
sessor and  collector  in  incorporated  cities,  to  be  elected  by  the 
people,  whose  duties  shall  be  prescribed  by  ordinance  (R.  S. 
1874,  p.  254);  but  it  also  provides  that  the  city  council  shall 
have  power  at  any  time,  by  ordinance  to  elect  to  levy  the  annual 
appropriations  upon  the  assessment  for  State  and  county  taxes, 
and  in  such  case  to  abolish  the  offices  of  city  assessor  and  city 
collector.     (R.    S.    1874,    p.    259.)     The    latter    act,    popularly 


17 

known  as  "Bill  Number  300,"  is  obnoxious  for  various  reasons, 
and  having  already  been  held  to  be  inoperative,  should  be  re- 
pealed. In  case  of  its  repeal,  and  of  the  incorporation  of  our 
city  as  now  contemplated,  under  the  general  act  first  referred 
to,  then  our  city  revenue  will  be  based  upon  the  State  and 
county  valuation.  In  case  it  is  not  repealed,  it  is  still  optional 
with  our  city  council  to  levy  the  annual  appropriations  upon 
the  State  and  county  valuation,  and  in  that  event  steps  should 
be  taken  to  bring  about  this  action  on  the  part  of  the  councih 
or  to  secure  legislation  to  compel  it. 

CONSOLID.\TION    NO    REMEDY    FOR    EVILS    OF    TOWNSHIP 

ORGANIZATION. 

The  idea  has  been  suggested  that  the  evils  of  township  or- 
ganizations in  the  city  might  be  relieved  by  consolidating  the 
three  towns  into  one  ;  but  your  committee  think  this  would  be 
"piling  Pelion  upon  Ossa,"  for  what  could  sixty  thousand  voters 
do  at  a  mass  meeting,  either  in  electing  suitable  town  officers  or 
deciding  by  a  viva  voce  vote  the  amount  of  revenue  to  be  raised 
for  the  public  uses  of  the  town.  Could  not  such  meetings  be 
controlled  by  a  few  hundreds  of  hired  "roughs,"  who  would  be 
paid  for  their  services  out  of  taxes  voted  by  themselves  into  the 
hands  of  their  corrupt  leaders,  whom  they  would  elect  to  office  .> 

The  power  to  increase  the  number  of  polling  places  in  the 
township  does  not  remove  the  difficulty,  as  it  would  be  impos- 
sible in  that  case  to  get  any  fair  expression  as  to  the  amount  to 
be  raised  by  taxation.  A  single  moderator  at  each  polling 
booth  in  a  large  city  where  every  voter  in  the  city  has  the  right 
to  vote  at  any  polling  place  within  it  when  consolidated  into  a 
single  political  township,  could  do  but  little,  even  if  so  disposed 
to  prevent  illegal  voting.  But  when  such  moderator  should  be 
chosen  by  an  organized  band  of  "repeaters,"  as  would  be  the 
case  at  many  of  the  polling  booths,  there  would  be  no  protection 
whatever. 

ADDITIONAL    REASONS    FOR    CHANGES    PROPOSED. 

Having  thus  endeavored  to  comply  with  your  instructions, 
your  committee  on  taxation  deem  it  proper  to  present  a  few 
additional  reasons  why  some  of  the  recommendations  in  their 
preliminary  report  should  be  carried  out.  The  cost  of  the  as- 
sessment  and   collection   of  city  taxes  for   the   year   1872   was 


18 

$89,416.99)  iiot  including  olTice  rent  or  any  portion  of  the  ex- 
penses of  the  law  department.  And  it  will  be  safe  to  estimate 
the  expenses  for  1873  at  $100,000,  with  an  annual  increase  for 
each  succeeding  year.  All  this  would  be  saved  to  the  tax- 
payers by  adopting  the  plan  suggested,  of  assessing  all  taxes 
upon  the  single  valuation  to  be  made  by  the  proposed  supervi- 
sor of  revenue  or  county  assessor. 

There  are  of  the  city  taxes  since  1869,  remaining  unsettled, 
more  than  two  and  a  half  millions  of  dollars,  of  which  at  least 
two  millions  will  never  be  collected ;  and  that  amount  either 
has  been  taken,  or  must  be  extracted  from  the  pockets  of  those 
who  have  already  borne  more  than  their  full  proportion  of  the 
public  burdens. 

The  simplification  of  the  assessments  under  the  plan  recom- 
mended, and  the  more  equal  distribution  of  the  burdens 
imposed  would,  in  the  opinion  of  your  committee,  greatly 
reduce  the  number  of  tax  contestants,  and  save  to  the  city  and 
county  treasuries  a  very  large  majority  of  the  revenues  thus 
annually  withheld  and  levied,  in  succeeding  years  upon  the 
property  of  the  people  who  have  already  paid. 

INDIRECT    TAXATION    NOT    PRACTICABLE. 

In  the  discussion  which  followed  the  report  of  September 
26th,  the  plan  for  collecting  all  the  taxes  from  the  business  of 
the  county  was  urged  as  possessing  many  advantages  over  the 
One  proposed  by  the  committee.  But,  admitting  that  indirect 
taxation,  if  applied  to  the  whole  nation,  might  distribute  itself 
with  some  approach  to  equity,  still  it  would  be  difficult,  if  not 
impossible,  to  adjust  such  taxes  so  as  not  to  impose  an  undue 
portion  of  the  public  burdens  upon  persons  of  limited  means 
and  restricted  business.  But  were  this  system  to  be  adopted 
by  a  single  State,  county,  or  city,  a  large  portion  of  the  whole 
tax  levy  would  become  a  premium  to  merchants,  manufacturers, 
jobbers,  and  traders  of  all  classes  who  reside  outside  of  the 
community  in  which  the  tax  is  collected,  and  to  that  extent 
would  rest  as  a  dead  weight  upon  the  taxed  industries  in  their 
honorable  race  for  supremacy.  To  cripple  the  business  of  any 
community,  is  at  the  same  time  to  reduce  the  value  of  all  fixed 
[)roperty  within  it,  and  to  build  up  all  values  in  rival  commu- 
nities not  so  oppressed.     Your  committee,  however,  think  that 


19 


exertion  to  cause  every  person,  company,  or  corporation  to  pay 
taxes  "  in  proportion  to  his,  her,  or  its  property  "  should  not  be 
abandoned  or  despaired  of;  but  that  constant,  careful,  and 
intelligent  effort  should  be  made  to  approach  more  nearly  to 
this  constitutional  requirement. 

RECOMMENDATIONS. 

Your  committee  therefore  recommend  : 

First — That  steps  be  taken  to  secure  the  signatures  of  the 
required  number  of  legal  voters  to  a  petition  to  the  county 
Board,  to  submit  to  the  voters  of  the  county  the  question  of  the 
continuance  of  township  organization  ;  and 

Second — That  bills  be  prepared  to  be  submitted  to  our  next 
General  Assembly,  providing  the  necessary  legislation  to  pre- 
vent any  inconvenience  which  otherwise  might  result  from  the 
abolition  of  township  organization,  and  to  define  the  duties  and 
term  of  office  of  the  County  Assessor  in  Cook  county,  in  case 
the  town  system  is  discontinued,  and  for  the  repeal  of  "  Bill 
Number  300." 

It  has  already  been  shown  how  important  it  is  to  the  com- 
plete execution  of  their  plan  that  the  proposed  incorporation  of 
our  city  under  the  general  act  be  accomplished ;  but,  as  this 
matter  is  now  receiving  the  earnest  attention  of  the  Citizens' 
Association,  any  further  recommendation  is  unnecessary. 
Respectfully  submitted. 

A,  J.  Galloway, 
E.  G.  Mason, 
Robert  Law, 
,  Cofumittee  on   Taxation. 

December  3,  1874. 


^ 


REPORT 


OF    THE 


I  BIAIiiC 


u 


J 


mm 


1 


TO    THE 


CITIZENS'  ASSOCIATION 


OF  CHICAGO. 


I:>:E]CEl!^BEI^,    isso. 


CHICAGO: 

HAZI,ITT  &  REED,  PRINTfiRS,   I72  AND    I74  CLARK  STREET. 

1880. 


EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE,  1880-81. 

Edson  Keith,  President, 

A.  A.  Carpenter,  Vice-Presieieitt, 

Henry  W.  King,  Max  A.  Mayer, 

MuRRY  Nelson,  Richard  T.  Crane, 

Marshall  Field, 

Edwin  Lee  Brown,  J.  L.  Thompson, 

Francis  B.  Peabody,  Marx  Wineman, 

Alfred  Bishop  Mason. 


GEORGE  SCHNEIDER, 

Treasurer. 

J.  C.  AMBLER, 

Secretary. 

Rooms,  35  Merchants'  Building. 


TO  THE   EXECUTIVE  COiMMITTEE 


CITIZI'  A 


OF     THE 


The  Committee  to  whom  was  referred  the  subject 
of  "Main  Drainage,"  with  a  view  of  recommend- 
ing some  system  for  the  disposition  of  the  sewage, 
adapted  to  the  present  and  future  needs  of  Chicago, 
respectfully  submit  the  following  Report : 


You  are  aware  that  there  was  some  hesitancy  and 
delay  in  forming  this  Committee,  consequent  partly,  on 
the  delicacy  inseparable  from  the  fact  that  the  import- 
ance of  the  subject  is  such,  that  any  recommendation 
of  a  very  positive  character,  particularly  if  it  conflicts  ma- 
terially with  general  opinions  and  is  calculated  to  disturb 
existing  systems,  must  be  the  subject  of  extended  critic- 
ism, unfavorable  and  otherwise,  by  all  classes  of  intelli- 
gent citizens,  professional,  administrative  and  financial ; 
and  partly  because  it  was  believed  that  more  time  would 
be  required  for  its  full  consideration  than  the  Committee 
could  devote  to  it,  within  the  period  when  you  would 
wish  to  give  it  to  the  public.      Relying  on  your  assur- 


ances  that  the  latter  should  be  regulated  to  suit  the 
circumstances,  and  availing  ourselves  of  the  competent 
engineering  and  clerical  assistance  furnished  to  us,  we  pro- 
ceeded with  the  investigation  necessary  to  comply  with 
the  terms  of  the  letter  of  request  on  which  the  Com- 
mittee was   formed. 

The  importance  of  the  question  submitted  to  us 
requires  no  emphasis ;  it  has  been  a  great  one,  ever  since 
our  city  inaugurated  the  existing  system  of  sewerage, 
and  it  has  become  of  vital  interest  within  the  last  few 
years;  it  is  now  deemed  paramount,  particularly  in  its 
sanitary  bearings,  by  all  those  who  have  given  intelli- 
gent attention  to  the  subject.  It  has  been  the  topic  of 
active  discussion  for  a  long  period,  and  its  interest  seems 
to  have  culminated  at  the  present  time.  It  has  called 
forth  unnumbered  and  some  very  able  communications 
through    the    press,    has    been    the    theme    of 


SCIENTIFIC   DEBATE, 


and  the  prolific  source  of  speculative  propositions  for 
for  its  solution  ;  municipal  authorities  have  shrunk  from 
the  task  of  grappling  with  it,  and  legislators  have  recoiled 
from  its  consideration  on  account  of  its  appalling  magni- 
tude. The  policy  heretofore  pursued  in  regard  to  this 
great  question  may  be  justly  called  a  temporizing  one  in 
the  most  extended  sense  of  that  term,  for  all  plans  hereto- 
fore adopted  have  confessedly  been  of  a  temporary  charac- 
ter, and  the  ultimate  solution  of  the  problem  has  been, 
with  great  unanimity,  deferred  to  some  future  and 
indefinite  time.  But  present  emergencies  seem  to  urge 
forward  opinion  in  the  direction  of  a  final  and  decisive 
consideration  of  it,  which  as  your  letter  remarks,  "  has 
not  been  undertaken  a  moment  too  soon." 


After  fully  considering  the  best  mode  of  procedure, 
we  concluded  that  for  the  purpose  of  eliciting  the 
opinions  of  those  who  desired  to  state  their  views  or  to 
submit  plans,  we  would  invite  communications  and  call 
public  meetings,  where  the  whole  subject  would  be  open 
to  discussion  and  where  useful  hints  or  facts  might  be 
elicited  by  interrogatories  made  at  the  moment,  and  by 
bringing  together  parties  who  had  information  to  impart 
or  who  desired  to  substantiate  or  correct  preconceived 
notions.  The  plan  was  eminently  successful ;  the  meetings 
were  well  attended  and  very  interesting  to  all  who  partici- 
pated in  them,  particularly  to  our  Committee,  who  were 
thus  enabled  to  collate  and  compare  the  ideas  expressed, 
and  to  correct  erroneous  or  imperfect  impressions  in 
regard  to  this  absorbing  question.  Some  new  facts  were 
presented  and  their  bearing  on  the  subject  was  duly 
considered.  Communications  sent  to  us,  in  accordance 
with  our  invitations,  were  treated  in  the  same  way.  by 
analysis  and  comparison.  A  meeting  of  Civil  Engineers 
for  discussion  of  the  same  topic  was  also  well  attended, 
and  included  the  members  of  this  Committee  and  many 
citizens  and  officials.  It  is  from  these  sources  and  inquir- 
ies pursued  privately,  that  we  submit  the  following 
account  of  the  position,  which  we  have  made  as  brief 
as  possible,  and  which,  though  most  of  it  is  already 
familiar  to  the  public,  we  deem  necessary  to  the  sym- 
metry of  our  report.  For  the  sake  of  brevity,  we  shall 
make  no  particular  account  of  figures,  but  confine  our- 
selves to  the  general  view  of  the  subject,  supplemented 
by  a  proposed  plan  at  the  close. 


THE   TOPOGRAPHICAL   SITUATION 

of  the  drainage  district  under  consideration  may  be 
briefly  described  as  a  strip  of  land,  in  the  eastern  part 
of  Cook  County,  varying  in  width  from  7  to   10  miles, 


8 

traversed  by  the  Chicago  River  its  whole  length,  which  is 
about  40  miles ;  the  only  outlet  of  this  River  to  the  Lake 
is  at  the  point  where  the  City  of  Chicago  stands,  about  35 
miles  south  of  the  source  of  the  River,  and  5  miles  north 
of  the  southernmost  of  its  branches  or  forks;  the 
outlet  to  the  Lake  at  Chicago  has  been  widened  and 
deepened  and  its  course  changed  so  that  it  opens  nearly 
due  east,  is  called  the  main  branch  of  the  Chicago  River, 
and  is  at  right  angles  to  the  principal  streams  which  are 
called  respectively  the  North  and  South  Branches.  These 
branches  have  also  been  widened  and  deepened  to  meet 
the  necessary  requirements  of  commercial  enterprise,  so 
that  vessels  of  from  10  to  14  feet  draft  can  navigate  with 
safety  the  River  and  its  branches,  to  a  distance  one  mile 
west  from  the  entrance  and  six  miles  north  and  south,  all 
within  the  city.  The  process  of  enlarging  the  River,  at 
Chicago,  has  destroyed  what  little  natural  current  there 
ever  was  in  it,  and  there  is  now  no  other  than  that  caused 
by  winds,  the  inflow  of  water  from  the  lake,  or  a  freshet 
caused  by  extraordinary  rain  fall  or  the  melting  of  snow 
and  ice  in  the  spring.  For  the  purposes  of  this  Report  the 
Chicago  River  may  be  described  as  a  great  ditch  6  miles 
long,  with  a  projection  from  about  the  centre  i  mile  long, 
and  the  whole  averaging  about  150  feet  in  width  and  10 
to  15  feet  deep;  this  ditch  receives  at  its  north  end  a 
small  stream,  (30  miles  in  length),  the  force  of  whose  feeble 
current  is  neutralized  by  the  increased  width  and  depth  of 
the  channel  it  enters,  and  it  has  at  its  south  end  several 
forks  or  branches  which  serve  to  take  off  a  small  amount 
of  water;  there  is  also,  from  the  South  end,  the  Illinois  and 
Michigan  Canal,  to  which  reference  will  be  made  hereafter. 
Into  this  huge  ditch  the  greater  part  of  the  sewage  and 
other  drainage  of  the  City  of  Chicago  falls,  together 
with  the  offal  of  the  immense  slaughtering  establish- 
ments, situated  in  the  adjoining  Town  of  Lake,  the 
refuse  of  the  manufactories  great  and  small,  and  to 
far  too  great  an  extent,  that  of  the  distilleries  and 
their  adjoining  cattle  pens.  A  part  of  the  sewerage  system 


has  its  outlet  directly  into  the  lake  in  front  of  the  city, 
but  that  part  is  by  comparison  so  small  as  to  have  no 
bearing  on  the  main  question  before  us,  at  this  point  of 
its  consideration.  The  whole  geographical  position  is 
backed  on  the  West  by  a  ridge,  which  though  of  no 
great  elevation,  is  sufficient  to  form  a  water  shed  of 
the  greatest  length  given  above,  with  the  river  running 
through  it  about  equi-distant  from  the  ridge  and  Lake 
Michigan ;  the  land  between  the  ridge  and  the  lake 
traversed  by  the  river  is  flat,  and  just  where  the  city 
stands,  is  a  little  higher  on  the  West  bank  of  the  river 
than  on  its  East  side,  towards  the  lake ;  the  natural 
flow  of  water  from  all  points  is  towards  the  River  and 
not    to    the    Lake. 


THE   ONLY   NATURAL   MEANS 

of  flushing  or  scouring  out  this  great  ditch,  is  from  the 
water  during  rains,  which  flows  into  it  from  the  adjoining 
country,  including  that  part  bordering  the  northern  pro- 
jection, the  freshet  caused  by  the  melting  of  snow  and  ice 
in  the  spring,  and  the  overflow  of  the  Des  Plaines  River, 
which  sometimes  swells  over  the  low  ridge  referred  to 
above,  and  comes  in  great  and  often  destructive  volume 
into  the  South  Branch  and  so  through  the  Main  Branch 
of  the  Chicago  River  into  the  lake.  Could  this  be  relied 
on  at  all  times,  it  might  be  so  utilized  as  to  relieve  the 
drainage  difficulty  now  before  us,  although  it  would  neces- 
sitate some  other  plan  than  that  we  have  adopted  for  our 
water  supply  for  domestic  and  all  other  purposes;  it  is, 
however,  unfrequent  and  undesirable. 

The    obvious   consequence  of  this  state  of  affairs  is 
that  at  all  times  since  the  city  adopted  a  system  of  sewer- 
age, the  River  has  been  befouled  with  its  discharges  and 
2 


10 

accretions,  for  which  there  have  been  no  natural  remedies 
except  those  of  the  occasional  character  mentioned  above. 
As  the  population  increased  this  befoulment  became 
more  marked,  and  in  time  so  unendurable  that  relief  of 
some  kind  became  imperatively  necessary,  as,  although 
the  pumping  works  at  Bridgeport,  originally  erected  in 
1847  ^o^  ^hs  purpose  of  supplying  water  to  the  Illinois 
and  Michigan  Canal  had  been  utilized  for  the  purpose  of 
cleansing  the  River  to  the  extent  of  their  capacity,  that 
system  was  found  to  be  very  inadequate  for  the  object, 
and   after  five  years  work 


THE   CANAL 


was  widened  and  deepened  so  that  in  1871  it  was  opened 
for  the  inflow  of  the  Chicago  River,  amidst  public  rejoic- 
ings, and  there  was  a  sanguine  belief  that  our  drainage 
troubles  were  at  an  end.  It  was  soon  found  that  these 
anticipations  were  doomed  to  disappointment ;  the  depth 
of  the  canal  after  enlargement  is  about  eight  feet  less  than 
that  of  the  River,  and  the  sides  were  cut  down  at  an 
unfortunate  angle,  making  them  too  steep  or  upright ;  the 
consequence  has  been  that  the  water  flowing  from  the  lake 
to  the  canal,  through  the  river,  has  only  cleansed  that 
portion  of  the  last  which  was  five  feet  above  the  bottom, 
there  being  a  recoil  at  the  mitre  sill  of  the  canal,  of  the 
water  below  it,  and  a  backward  current  of  greater  or  less 
power  according  to  circumstances  ;  besides  this,  the  canal 
began  gradually  to  fill  up  from  the  sediment  carried  into 
it  from  the  river,  and  from  the  deposits  naturally  coming 
over  the  sides,  thus  decreasing  the  depth  and  the  capacity 
for  taking  water  from  the  River;  at  about  this  time,  (1871,) 
also,  the  Lake  began  to  fall,  as  it  is  known  to  do  at 
periods,  diminishing  the  volume  of  water  in  the  River. 
The  net  result  of  all  these  causes  was  soon  apparent.     It 


11 

was  seen  that  by  deepening  the  canal  we  had  only  length- 
ened the  ditch  which  we  call  the  Chicago  River,  and  that 
after  the  canal  had  been  filled,  it  was,  with  such  relief  only 
as  is  obtained  by  opening  the  locks  for  the  passage  of 
vessels  or  other  purposes,  fast  becoming  as  foul  as  the  river 
itself,  to  the  unmitigated  annoyance  of  the  inhabitants 
along  its  line ;  and  it  was  the  subject  of  their  loud 
protests.  Nothing  can  keep  it  even  moderately  clean 
but  constant  dredging,  rendered  more  expensive  from 
the  very  fact  that   it   has  been   deepened. 

Some    other    means   of    cleansing    the    River    was 
demanded,  and  the 


FULLERTON   AVENUE   CONDUIT 


was  projected,  to  scour  the  river  by  pumping  from  the 
Lake,  or,  vice  versa,  to  create  a  current  through  the  main 
River,  up  the  North  Branch,  and  so  out  into  the  Lake, 
flushing  the  South  Branch  as  a  collateral  measure  by  the 
natural  process  of  displacement  or  suction  which  would 
follow. 

It  were  profitless  to  attempt  to  detail  the  various 
annoyances  the  public  have  been  subjected  to  during 
these  many  years  they  have  been  waiting  for  some  plan 
of  relief  for  their  sufferings  from  the  foul  condition  of 
their  principal  sewer,  which  unfortunately  for  the  pur- 
poses of  drainage,  is  also  a  navigable  river;  an  overflow  of 
the  Des  Plaines  or  a  freshet  from  any  cause  has  been 
hailed  with  something  akin  to  delight,  and  a  easterly 
storm  by  driving  in  the  water  to  dilute  and  carry  off 
part  of  the  filth  has  been  looked  upon  as  a  blessing. 

We  have  arrived,  in  this  report,  at  that  period  of 
time,  (February  and  March,  1880,)  when,  while  the  Fuller- 


12 

ton  Avenue  Conduit  is  in  full  and  partly  successful 
operation,  the  public  meetings  referred  to  above  were 
held  with  the  view  of  a  free  discussion  of  the  whole 
subject. 

In  addition  to  the  facts  hereinbefore  stated,  some 
others  having  a  very  imporant  bearing  on  this  question 
were  brought  to  light,  the  principal  one  being  that  which 
relates  to  the  operation  of  the  FuUerton  Avenue  Conduit, 
which  had  at  that  time  been  sufficiently  tried  in  one 
direction,  that  of  sending  water  from  the  Lake  into  the 
River,  and  so  out  by  the  Main  Branch  into  the  Lake 
again,  to  develop  the  danger  there  would  at  all  times  be 
of  fouling  the  water  supply  for  domestic  purposes  ;  the 
experiments  made  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  such  a 
probability,  demonstrated  conclusively  that  a  very  consid- 
erable quantity  of  the  filth  discharged  from  the  mouth  of 
the  river  found  its  way  back  into  the  water  pipes,  and 
further  investigation  has  shown  that  except  under  favor- 
able conditions  this  will  always  be  the  case,  as  the  con- 
tents of  the  river  will  not,  all  of  them,  mingle  immediately 
with  pure  water,  and  be  carried  away  by  any  current  that 
may  be  caused  by  winds,  favorable  for  the  purpose,  but 
for  a  long  time  will  float  about  the  lake  in  a  semi-isolated 
mass,  subject  to  the  effect  of  such  winds  and  currents  as 
may  strike  them,  and  always  liable  to  run  into  the  tunnel  at 
the  crib;  and  for  this  reason,  that  there  is  always  there  an 
effective  current  for  a  considerable  distance  in  every 
direction,  around  and  tending  towards  the  Crib.  It  was 
shown  also,  that  temporary  relief  could  be  obtained  by 
the  immediate  re-erection  of  the  pumping  works  at 
Bridgeport,  and  it  is  believed  that  with  the  aid  of  the 
Fullerton  Avenue  Conduit,  these  pumping  works  at 
the  entrance  of  the  Canal  will  afford  such  a  measure  of 
relief  as  will  enable  the  city  to  get  along  with  moderate 
annoyance  for  five  years  or  so,  or  until  some  better  system 
has  been  brought  into  operation.  The  immediate  re-erec- 
tion of  those  pumps  was,  therefore,  the  recommendation 


13 

made  by  our  Committee,  through  you,  to  the  municipal 
authorities,  as  a  temporary  expedient,  and  the  money 
having  been  appropriated  by  the  Council  for  the  purpose, 
the  action  of  the  City  Executive  is  awaited  with  becom- 
ing patience. 

Review  the  topographical  situation  as  hereinbefore 
given,  revise  the  meagre  history  of  the  attempts  to  purify 
the  River,  consider  the  feeble  means  now  in  operation  and 
those  necessarily  temporary  adjuncts  looked  for  at  an  early 
date,  and  to  these  considerations  add  the  probability  that 
the  drainage  district  we  have  contemplated  is  to  be  the 
home  of  2,500,000  people  within  the  period  of  existence 
of  many  now  living,  and  you  have  before  you  the  drainage 
problem  as  we  understand  it. 

It  should  in  justice  be  said  that  any  attempts  hereto- 
fore made  to  relieve  the  difficulties  which  are  under 
consideration  have  necessarily  been  of  a  temporary  or 
make-shift  character,  and  that  this  has  been  the  outcome 
of  a  want  of  sufficient  means  to  carry  out  comprehensive 
plans  for  this  or  any  other  great  public  improvement ;  and 
besides,  the  unparalleled  growth  of  Chicago  has  set  at 
naught  the  calculations  of  its  most  sanguine  municipal 
administrators,  and  in  nothing  more  than  in  this  drainage 
question ;  the  manufactories  and  packing  houses  alone, 
which  turn  their  debris  into  the  River,  exceeding  in  their 
magnitude  all  suggestions  of  but  a  few  years  since. 

Since  the  date  alluded  to  above,  (February  and 
March,  1880),  the  history  of  this  subject  can  be  briefly 
sketched  and  is  of  interest.  The  machinery  of  the 
Fullerton  Avenue  Conduit  has  been  reversed  and  the 
river  water  has  been  continuously  pumped  towards  the 
lake,  while  during  the  same  time  there  has  been  one  of 
those  periodical  phenomena  called  a  "  rise  of  the  lake", 
an  occurrence  which  takes  place  about  once  in  seven  years 
and     has    always    been    followed    by   a    corresponding 


u 

recedence,  gradual  in  its  character,  until  the  lowest  point 
is  reached.  The  effect  of  these  two  causes  has  been  to 
give  parts  of  the  river  an  appearance  of  cleanliness,  as 
the  fresh  water  over-rides  the  filth,  while  the  action  of 


THE   CONDUIT 


is  continually  drawing  off  the  latter  from  the  North 
Branch,  while  at  the  same  time  the  rise  of  the  river 
and  recent  dredging  of  the  Canal  has  opened  a  passage 
in  that  direction  which  takes  off  a  part  from  the 
South  Branch  ;  what  drainage  matter  does  not  pass  off  in 
this  way  remains  covered  over  by  the  clear  water  and 
gradually  works  it  way  in  a  feeble  under  current  towards 
the  mouth  of  the  river  and  the  lake,  or  backed  up  into 
the  sewers,  is  reflected  in  those  nauseous  vapors  which 
have  so  much  disturbed  the  inhabitants  of  the  North 
and  South  Divisions,  and  in  a  less  degree  those  in  the 
West  Division,  during  the  last  summer.  There  can 
be  no  doubt  that  if  the  pumps  into  the  Canal  were  now 
in  position  and  operation,  the  combined  action  of  the 
three  powers  mentioned  above,  would  give  us  as  clear  a 
river  as  it  is  possible  for  us  to  get  with  our  present 
resources. 

It  is  believed  that  the  canal  has  the  capacity  for 
taking  all  the  water  that  it  would  be  desirable  to  pump 
into  it,  and  that  if  the  proposed  pumping  works  were  so 
constructed,  with  a  trap  wall,  so  as  to  take  the  water 
from  the  bottom  or  lower  part  of  the  river,  there  would 
be  a  decided  improvement  in  drawing  off  some  of  the 
heavier  matter. 

It  now  becomes  our  duty  to  consider  the  numerous 
and  various  plans  presented  to  us  for  the  final  and  decisive 


15 


SOLUTION   OF   THE   PROBLEM 


presented ;  and  in  doing  so  we  have  only  to  regret 
that  many  ingenious  suggestions  have  to  be  passed 
over  with  the  general  remark  that  in  our  judgement 
they  are  not  adapted  to  application  on  such  a  gigantic  scale 
as  that  which  is  presented  to  our  view  of  the  situation ;  in 
smaller  constituencies  they  would  find  a  better  field  of 
usefulness.  The  first  of  feasable  propositions  that  presents 
itself,  has  the  endorsement  of  such  high  authority,  that  of 
itself  it  is  entitled  to  the  primary  consideration  which  we 
give  it :  it  is,  to  erect  works  of  a  similar  character  to  the 
Fullerton  Avenue  Conduit  at  the  southernmost  end  of  the 
South  Branch,  and  by  the  process  now  in  practice,  to 
pump  the  water  either  from  the  Lake  into  the  River,  or 
flush  the  River  by  reversing  that  process  and  allowing  the 
water  to  pass  through  the  main  channel  and  by  the  North 
and  South  branches  into  the  conduits  and  so  into  the 
Lake.  That  this  would  be  effective  for  a  district  circum- 
scribed in  extent  is  quite  apparent,  but  that  it  would  not 
be  a  solution  of  the  great  problem  is  also  so  apparent  that 
it  is  only  necessary  to  refer  to  the  fact  that  it  makes  no  pro- 
vision for  any  afflux  of  ingredients  beyond  the  narrow 
bounderies  of  its  termini ;  this  scheme  appears  to  us  local 
and  narrow  in  its  general  characteristics,  and  unworthy 
of  consideration  in  a  general  sense.  It  is  embarrassed, 
also,  with  the  general  objections  expressed  below,  with 
regard  to  the  expense  of  pumping  operations,  and  of  the 
discharge  of  filth  into  the  lake. 

Another,  and  by  all  means  in  our  view,  the  most 
feasable  and  proper  mode  for  ridding  ourselves  of  the 
difficulty  growing  out  of  the  drainage  question,  excepting 
that  which  we   shall    ultimately  present,  is  that    of    an 


16 


INTERCEPTING   SEWER, 


which,  traversing  the  river  bank  on  both  sides  shall  deliver 
the  city  sewage  at  some  point  where  it  can,  by  the  appli- 
cation of  power,  be  discharged  somewhere,  either  into 
the  Lake,  or  upon  land  selected  for  the  purpose,  of 
sufficient  extent  to  absorb  the  issue  for  a  term  of  years. 
The  advantages  of  a  syphon  principle  as  applied  to  such 
a  plan  are  not  sufficiently  apparent  to  warrant  more  than 
a  general  reference  to  them. 

Another  project  is  to  allow  all  the  water  of  the 
drainage  district  above  the  city  limits,  to  traverse  a  canal 
constructed  for  the  purpose,  in  the  rear  of  the  city, 
supplemented  by  the  Fullerton  Avenue  Conduit,  and  to 
turn  all  the  sewers  west  of  the  river  into  that  canal, 
which  would  find  its  outlet  into  the  Des  Plaines  River; 
the  sewers  in  the  South  and  North  divisions  of  the 
city,  to  be  discharged  into  the  Lake. 

The  embarrassments  referred  to  above  as  a  general 
objection  to  any  one  or  all  of  the  plans  presented  to  us  are 
that  they  involve  continual  and  increasing  expenditures 
for  their  successful  operation,  in  the  way  of  pumping  or 
other  mechanical  appliances,  and  that,  even  when  success- 
fully prosecuted,  their  effects  are  local.  But  the  most 
objectionable  feature  of  all  is,  that  the  ultimate  dispo- 
sition of  the  sewage  is  towards  the  Lake. 

In  the  plan  which  we  shall  hereafter  present  the 
objections  to  an  intercepting  sewer,  growing  out  of  the 
expense  of  pumping  or  final  disposition  of  the  sewage 
are  overcome. 

Our  objections  to  any  plan  which  suggests  the  dis- 
charge of  sewage  or  other  impure  matter  into  the  Lake, 


17 

where  they  could  in  any  event  contaminate  the  water 
supply,  are  so  fixed,  that  part  of  the  recommendation  in 
the  plan  we  shall  hereafter  propose,  is,  that  a  radical 
change  in  the  whole  system  of  sewerage  in  the  North  and 
South  divisions  shall  be  inaugurated,  by  which  all  sewers 
shall  empty  into  the  River,  and  although  we  have  given 
careful  consideration  to  all  plans  laid  before  us,  we  make 
no  reference  to  any,  except  those  mentioned  above, 
which  propose  the  use  of  the  lake  for  the  ultimate  disposi- 
tion of  the  sewage.  Just  here  it  is  proper  to  remark, 
that  the  filthy  water  flowing  from  the  FuUerton  Avenue 
Conduit,  when  it  is  operated  in  the  direction  of  the 
Lake,  is  traceable  for  a  long  distance  out  towards  the 
crib,  unless  a  strong  wind  carries  it  along  the  shore.  Any 
attempt  to  remedy  this  by  extending 


THE   TUNNEL   AND    CRIB 


further  out  to  the  eastward,  would,  in  our  judgment  be 
futile,  and  suggestions  for  carrying  the  pumping  works  for 
the  water  supply  northward,  to  some  distant  location  on 
the  Lake  Shore,  besides  being  a  partial  remedy  only, 
would  be  attended  with  a  much  greater  expense  than 
what  we  consider  a  more  feasable  plan  would  cost. 

It  has  also  been  suggested  to  us,  that  if  the  locks 
and  dams  in  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal  were  removed, 
the  water  would  flow  freely  through  the  canal  and  so 
cleanse  the  river ;  but  to  this  it  is  answered,  that  such  a 
course  would  destroy  the  usefulness  of  the  canal  for 
purposes  of  navigation,  interfere  with  many  private  rights, 
and  require  that  the  canal  should  be  deepened  to  the 
depth  of  the  river,  at  a  very  large  expense,  which  can  be 
utilized  for  another  project  unobjectionable  in  any  of  its 
other  features. 

3 


18 

We  wish  to  remark,  before  proceeding  to  another 
branch  of  the  subject,  and  in  reply  to  a  suggestion,  that 
while  the  proposed  pumping  works  at  Bridgeport  are  in 
operation,  the  water  should  be  shut  off  from  the  North 
Branch,  or  that  gates  at  the  forks  of  the  River  should  be 
used  ;  that,  in  our  judgement,  would  not  be  necessary, 
as  we  have  competent  authority  for  the  opinion  that  the 
waters  forced  down  the  North  Branch  by  the  Fullerton 
Avenue  pumps,  would  mingle  with  that  coming  in  from 
the  lake,  and  take  a  southerly  direction  towards  the  works 
at  the  canal. 

Alternative  propositions  have  presented  themselves 
to  our  minds,  for  the  final  solution  of  this  great  problem  ; 
the  one  which  at  first  seems  most  plausible,  partly  because 
it  follows  in  the  direction  of  public  opinion,  as  at  present 
pointed,  is  that  of  a  Ship  Canal,  the  suggestions  for  which 
embody  plans  for  the  construcion  of  one  of  great  dimen- 
sions, into  which  it  is  proposed  to  drain  Chicago  City,  and 
the  district  we  have  hereinbefore  described.  We  have 
given  a  large  share  of  our  attention  to  this  scheme,  and 
although  we  are  unanimously  and  cordially  in  favor  of  a 
ship  canal  as  such,  we  cannot  give  it  the  sanction  of  our 
favorable  opinion  as  a  drain;  as  such  it  would  be  liable 
to  all  the  objections  now  urged  against  the  present  canal, 
as  to  its  annoyance  of  the  inhabitants  along  its  banks,  for 
the  reason  that  any  current  which  would  move  the  water 
with  sufficient  velocity  to  prevent  the  deposit  of  filth, 
would  impair  its  usefulness  for  commercial  purposes,  it 
having  been  well  ascertained,  that  no  current  greater 
than  half  a  mile  per  hour  is  tolerable  in  slack  water 
navigation.  The  project  for  the  construction  of  such  a 
canal,  is  embarrassed,  also,  with  many  considerations  of 
a  political  nature,  which  we  do  not  deem  it  within  our 
province  to  consider,  preferring  to  present  the  other  plan, 
which  can  be  carried  out  within  a  reasonable  time,  at  a 
very  moderate  cost,  and  which  is  wholly  within  the  scope 
of  the  pecuniary  means  of  those  for  whose  benefit  it  will 


19 

have  been  constructed,  and  will,  it  is  believed,  be  wholly 
devoid  of  offence  to  any  locality  or  people. 

We  present  to  you  and  the  public  a  proposition  or 
plan  for  an  independent  cut  for  the  drainage  of  the  district 
to  which  we  have  heretofore  alluded,  the  details  of  which 
are  embodied  in  the  following  report,  from  the  well  known 
and  competent  engineer  whose  name  it  bears,  whose 
services  you  placed  at  our  disposal,  for  the  purpose  of 
making  the  estimates,  and  drawing  the  map  and  profile 
accompanying  it,  reduced  copies  of  which  we  append 
hereto,  and  the  originals  of  which  are  on  exhibition  at 
your  rooms  in  this  city,  for  inspection  of  the  public. 

Such  is  the  plan  proposed  for  the  drainage  ot 
Chicago,  which,  it  is  believed,  will  accomplish  the  object 
desired  for  all  time  to  come. 

To  complete  it,  however,  the  sewers  discharging  into 
the  Lake  will  have  to  be  reversed,  and  made  to  empty 
into  the  river,  as  also,  the  local  drains  in  the  adjoining 
towns  north  of  the  city,  as  far  as  the  source  of  the 
Chicago  River,  and  those  of  Hyde  Park.  The  towns  of 
Lake  and  Cicero  will  also  come  within  the  drainage  dis- 
trict herein  proposed.  In  reversing  the  city  sewers,  such 
a  fall  should  be  made  as  would  carry  the  lake  water 
through  them,  thus  cleansing  and  rendering  them  inoffen- 
sive at  all  times.  The  Fullerton  Avenue  Conduit  could 
remain  as  it  is,  or  its  tunnel  could  be  utilized  for  additional 
water  supply.  An  intercepting  sewer  can  be  built  if 
needed. 

The  forks  and  branches  of  the  River  at  the  south 
end  of  it  will  purify  themselves,  as  their  contents  will 
gravitate  towards  the  current  created  by  the  outflow  of 
water  to  the  cut  or  New  River,  as  it  may  be  called  for 
the  purpose  of  description.  The  current  in  this  New  River 
will  be  at  the  rate  of  about  2iV(f  miles  per  hour;  the  water 


20 

in  Chicago  River  will  be  changed  every  24  hours,  with 
one  million  of  cubic  feet  over,  and  the  whole  body  of  it 
within  the  city  limits,  will  be  by  this  operation,  become 
as  clear  as  that  of  the  lake ;  the  effect  upon  the  waters  at 
its  point  of  discharge,  will  be  to  greatly  improve  them 
in  every  respect. 

To  carry  into  effect  such  a  project,  so  vast  and  so 
important,  some  legislation  will  probably  be  necessary,  to 
extend  the  provisions  of  the  present  drainage  law,  so  as 
to  create  a  drainage  district  and  a  commission  for  the  pur- 
pose. The  estimated  cost  of  the  New  River  is  $6,850,000, 
but  to  complete  the  project  in  every  respect,  the  sum  of 
$12,000,000  will  probably  be  necessary.  The  Commission- 
ers who  may  have  charge  of  the  operation,  should  be 
empowered  to  borrow  the  money  for  the  purpose,  on  the 
credit  of  the  district  benefited  and  incorporated  by  law, 
and  such  a  loan  would  probably,  if  redeemable  in  30  years 
or  more,  be  readily  taken  at  four  per  cent.  Even  at  a 
low  assessed  valuation  of  property,  a  tax  of  two  mills 
would  be  amply  sufficient  to  pay  the  interest  and  provide 
a  sinking  fund  for  the  principal.  As  projects  for  the 
storage  of  water  in  the  upper  Mississippi  district,  and 
about  the  sources  of  the  Missouri  and  Rock  Rivers,  for 
the  purpose  of  supplying  those  streams  in  seasons  of 
drought  or  low  stages,  have  been  before  Congress,  it  is 
probable  that  such  a  plan  as  this,  would  meet  with  equal 
favor  the^e  for  a  similar  purpose. 

Respectfully  Submitted, 

JOHN  B.  SHERMAN, 
GEO.  C.  MORGAN, 
S.  B.  REED. 

Covtmittee  on  Main  Draifiage, 


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21 


J.  C.  AMBLER,  Esq. 


Secretary  Citizens'  Association, 
Room  35,  Merchants'  Building,  N.  W.  Cor. 

La  Salle  and  Washington  Streets,  Chicago. 


Dear  Sir: 


On  the  nth  day  of  June,  A.  D.  1880,  a  telegram  was  received  from 
you,  asking  for  a  consultation  with  me  at  your  office  or  rooms,  on  the  12th, 
in  regard  to  the  drainage  of  the  City  of  Chicago. 

On  that  day  I  met  you  and  others,  for  the  purpose  proposed,  and 
after  a  free  exchange  of  views,  received  an  order  from  you,  as  Secretary  of 
the  Citizens'  Association,  to  prepare  a  map  and  profile,  with  approximate 
estimates  of  cost,  for  a  sewer  for  such  drainage,  with  limit  of  time  to  12th 
day  of  September  following. 

Herewith  I  hand  you  a  map,  drawn  from  the  U.  S.  Government  sur- 
veys, and  from  my  own  surveys  of  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal,  which 
were  executed  in  behalf  of  the  State  of  Illinois. 

On  this  map,  marked  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  H,  in  red  ink,  will  be  noted 
a  line  in  heavy  red  ink,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Regula  or  Mud  Lake  fork 
of  the  South  Branch  of  the  Chicago  River,  running  off  west,  and  through 
said  Lake,  toward  the  DesPlaines  River,  north  of  summit,  and  then  curving 
round  to  the  left,  keeping  away  to  the  left,  and  passing  along  in  a  southwest 
direction  between  the  Canal  and  River,  past  the  ice  houses,  and  between 
said  houses  and  the  River,  to  Mount  Forest,  Willow  Spring,  Sag  Bridge 
Station,  and  Lemont,  to  the  Romeo  bend  of  the  Canal,  Norton's  Tail  Race 
at  Lockport,  and  to  a  point  opposite  Lock  No.  i,  at  Lockport.  Thence  to  a 
point  at  the  head  of  the  pond  of  Dam  No.  i,  Joliet,  a  few  hundred  feet 
northwest  of  Lock  No.  4,  of  the  I.  &  M.  Canal,  a  distance  not  far  from 
31^  miles. 

While  conversing  with  you  on  this  subject,  it  was  stated,  that  where 
the  levels  were  not  satisfactory  to  me,  as  to  points  on  the  DesPlaines  below 
Joliet,  new  levels  should  be  taken,  and  a  profile  thereof  made. 

A  corps  ol  engineers  was  set  at  work  from  Norton's  tail  race  at 
Lockport,  to  a  point  on  Lake  Joliet,  a  distance  ot  about  seven  miles,  the 
result  of  which  survey  and  levels  you  will  see  on  the  map  and  profile, 
marked  A,  B,  C. 


22 

After  carefully  looking  over  the  excavation  to  be  done,  on  a  line 
extending  the  sewer  below  Lock  No.  4  ;  costing  in  the  aggregate  about 
$613,000,  with  no  adequate  compensation,  it  was  apparent  that  the  sewer 
proposed,  should  terminate  near  said  Lock  No.  4  at  B,  see  map  and  profile. 

Then,  commencing  for  the  south-western  terminus  of  the  sewer  at 
B,  and  running  on  the  red  line  about  2^  miles  N.  N.  E.,  we  reach  a  point 
opposite  Lock  No.  i,  with  a  fall  to  the  south  of  about  12  feet  in  bottom  of 
sewer,  or  4ycro  ^^^'^  ^^  P^''  "^i^^i  ^"^  the  average  width  of  15  feet. 

Then  run  north  and  north-east  upon  the  red  line,  past  Romeo  and 
Lemont,  Sag  Bridge  Station,  Willow  Springs,  Mount  Forest,  Summit  and 
Mud  Lake,  or  regular  route,  we  touch  Bridgeport,  a  distance  from  Lock 
No.  I,  of  29  miles,  and  an  ascent  of  i  foot  per  mile,  making  29  feet  fall 
from  Bridgeport  to  Lockport,  in  bottom  of  sewer,  with  a  width  of  sewer  at 
lower  end,  of  20  feet,  and  at  upper  end,  of  ^9  f^^t,  for  compensation. 

This  route,  as  will  appear  by  the  red  ink  line  on  the  map,  lies  north 
and  west  of,  and  entirely  away  from,  the  Illinois  and  Michigan  Canal  and 
its  right  of  way. 

Where  deemed  necessary,  the  bottom  of  the  sewer  shall  have  an 
inverted  arch  of  long  pave,  and  the  sides  thereof,  to  a  point  14  feet  above 
bottom,  should  be  lined  by  a  good,  firm,  retaining  wall. 

Good  substantial  abutments  and  bridges  at  all  crossings  will  be 
necessary  throughout,  and  at  Big  Run — Norton's  tail  race  and  Fraction 
Run  ;  an  arch  about  300  feet  long,  in  each,  will  be  needed  to  let  the  water 
from  these  several  places,  pass  over  the  top  of  the  sewer. 

The  eastern  portion  of  this  route  is  already  excavated  to  about  the 
proper  width,  but  not  to  the  proper  depth. 

The  sewer  when  completed  should  draw  water  from  the  surface  to 
the  bottom  of  the  River,  low  water,  datum  line,  for  the  first  29  miles,  mak- 
ing a  "  wet  line  "  as  shown  on  the  profile,  and  draw  to  bottom  of  River 
at  H,  as  per  profile. 

A  portion  of  West  Chicago,  and  the  Town  of  Cicero,  under  an 
arrangement  with  the  city,  may  drain  directly  into  the  main  sewer. 

The  amount  of  excavation  for  the  above  sewer,  by  a  carefnl  approx- 
imate estimate  will  be  3,031,  285,00  cubic  yards. 


23 

Cost  of  Excavation. — Earth  and  rock — slope  wall — in- 
verted arch  in  bottom  and  the  three  arches  afore- 
said   --- $6,365,698.00 

Contingencies,  Engineering,  etc 483.625.00 


I 


Total  cost .-$6,849,323.00 


Having  set  forth  the  cubic  yards  to  be  excavated  in  the  above  sewer, 
including  earth  and  rock,  with  the  probable  cost,  I  will  proceed  to  state  the 
cubic  feet  of  water  which  the  sewer  is  expected  to  pass,  at  a  point  opposite 
Lock  No.  I,  with  a  clear  width  of  20  feet,  a  depth  of  10  feet,  a  fall  of  i 
foot  per  mile,  and  a  width  at  upper  end  of  sewer  of  49  feet,  and  widening 
from  Lock  i  lo  head  of  sewer,  at  the  rate  of  i  foot  per  mile,  as  compensa- 
tion ;  with  this  area  of  flow  of  water,  say  10  ft.  x  20  ft.,  making  a  "wet 
line"  of  40  feet,  we  have  reason  to  expect  a  discharge  of  632^  cubic  feet 
of  water  per  second  ;  37,947  cubic  feet  in  a  minute  ;  2,276,820  cubic  feet  in 
an  hour,  and  in  24  hours,  54,643,680  cubic  feet. 

In  seven  miles  length  of  Chicago  River,  I  have  estimated  53,734,080 
cubic  feet  of  water,  from  the  data  furnished  me,  and  hence  we  deduce  it  as 
a  theoretical  fact,  that  the  sewer  will  discharge  the  entire  amount  of  water 
in  the  Chicago  River  in  24  hours,  and  then  draw  about  1,000,000  cubic  feet 
of  clear  Lake  water  through  the  sewer  beside.  But  as  theory  is  sometimes 
doubted  as  against  practical  experience,  we  can  afford  to  assume,  with  the 
light  we  have,  that  in  twenty-four  hours  we  can  drain  the  Chicago  River. 

I  have,  as  already  mentioned,  run  new  levels  and  a  transit  line  for 
about  seven  miles  of  the  distance,  and  have  given  the  general  subject  as 
much  time  for  investigation  as  was  practicable,  unless  I  had  been  ordered 
to  make  a  careful  survey  the  entire  distance. 

As  approximate  estimates  of  excavation,  I  consider  them  reliable, 
and  have  attempted  to  keep  within  the  limit  of  error  in  my  calculation  of 
the  flow  of  water  through  this  long  passage  from  Lake  Michigan  to  the  Des 
Plaines  River. 

All  of  which  is  respectfully  submitted. 

Dated  at  Joliet,  this  3d  day  of  September,  1880. 

A.  J.  MATHEWSON. 


REPORT 


OF    THE 


SEWERAGE  COMMITTEE 


TO     THE 


CITIZENS^  ASSOCIATION 


OF  CHICAGO. 


OGTOBEE,,     1880. 


CHICAGO  : 

HAZLITT  &  REED,  PRINTERS,  1 72  AND   1 74  CLARK  STREET. 

1880. 


EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE,  1880. 

Edson  Keith,  President, 

A.  A.  Carpenter,  Vice-President, 
Henry  W.  King, 
Max  a.  Mayer, 
MuRRY  Nelson, 

Richard  T.  Crane, 
Marshall  Field, 

Edwin  Lee  Brown, 
J.  L.  Thompson. 


GEORGE  SCHNEIDER, 

Treasurer. 


J.  C.  AMBLER, 

Secretary. 

Rooms,  35  Merchants'  Building. 


REPORT 


OF  THE 


SEWERAGE   COMMITTEE 


TO    THE 


CITIZENS'  ASSOCIATION  OF  CHICACxO. 


To  THE  Executive  Committee  of  the  Citizens'  Association 
or  Chicago: 


The  Committee  on  House  Drainage  ajjpointed  by  you  beg 
leave  to  submit  the  following  report: 

The  sanitary  condition  of  houses  is  of  vital  importance,  not 
only  to  the  occupants,  but  to  the  entire  community.  The  ad- 
mission of  poisonous  gases  into  one  house  may  be  the  cause  of 
an  epidemic  disease.  In  considering  the  questions  connected 
with  house  drainage,  therefore,  we  have  endeavored  to  regard 
them,  not  as  they  affect  the  interests  of  the  individual  house- 
holder only,  but  in  a  broader  view,  in  their  relations  to  the 
health  and  safety  of  the  whole  city. 


6 


DANGERS   OF  MALAKIA. 


It  is  often  said  that  tliere  is  now  a  tendency  to  exaggerate 
the  dangers  from  malarial  poisons.  This  is  only  partially  true. 
In  spite  of  all  the  discussion  of  the  subject,  the  great  mass  of 
the  people  are  still  ignorant  of  the  extent  of  the  dangers  to 
which  they  are  daily  and  hourly  exposed,  and  of  ev^en  the  com- 
monest methods  of  prevention.  It  is  desirable  that  the  at- 
tention of  the  public  shall  be  so  thoroughlj^  aroused  to  the 
importance  of  this  subject  that^  no  one  will  be  content  to 
live  in  a  house  until  he  has  been  convinced  that  it  is  in 
good  sanitary  condition. 

It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  a  very  large  majority  of  all 
the  buildings  in  Chicago  are  now  exposed  to  great  risks 
from  injurious  gases.  As  we  have  shown  that  this  is  a  matter 
nearly  concerning  the  public  health,  we  shall  first  consider  the 
remedies,  and  then  recommend  that  the  adoption  of  some  of 
the  simplest  of  them  be  made  obligatory  by  law,  and  be 
enforced  by  the  appointment  of  a  Sanitary  Inspector. 


CAUSES  OF  DANGER. 

There  are  three  principal  causes  of  danger:  1st.  From  de- 
caying matter  about  the  premises,  from  dark,  damp  and 
nnventilated  cellars,  and  an  untidy  condition  of  the  house; 
but  this  does  not  properly  come  within  the  scope  of  our  in- 
vestigation. 2nd.  From  sewer  gas  generated  within  the 
building.     3d.  From  the  sewer  gas  in  the  main  or  street  sewers. 


REMEDY. 

These  dangers  are  very  serious,  but  there  is  a  remedy  for 
them.  They  can  be  averted  and  the  sewer  gas  rendered  harm- 
less by  the  t/wroKgh  veiitihituni  of  the  (Iridnaye  system  within 
the  house  and  of  the  m/iin  sewers. 


MAIN    SEWERS. 


As  we  shall  treat  of  the  main  sewers  only  so  far  as  they 
affect  the  healthfulness  of  houses,  we  shall  first  consider  the 
danger  from  this  source,  and  how  to  avert  it. 

Chicago  is  a  flat  city,  the  streets  having  only  about  ten  feet 
average  elevation  above  Lake  Michigan.  Consequently  its 
sewers  are  laid  with  a  very  slight  fall;  heavy  showers  nearly 
till  them,  and  the  rising  of  the  Lake  from  a  change  of  wind 
to  the  north  or  east  always  causes  a  sudden  accumulation  of 
water  in  them.  The  air  space  is  contracted  and  the  air 
witliin  the  sewers  compressed.  It  must  and  will  find  vent. 
Unless  this  is  provided  for,  the  most  convenient  and  easiest 
vent  is  the  pipes  leading  up  into  the  houses.  The  traps  offer 
almost  no  resistence  to  the  compressed  air,  and  it  finds  ready 
access  to  the  houses  as  they  are  generally  constructed. 

Changes  of  temperature  and  other  causes  produce  a  like 
result. 

We  suggest  two  means  to  obviate  these  dangers: 

1st.  That  the  present  system  of  perforated  covers  to  man- 
holes in  the  main  sewers  be  made  universal,  and  that  every 
man-hole  in  Chicago  be  provided  with  a  perforated  top.  It  is 
the  experience  of  London  and  other  large  cities  that  this  sys- 
tem, when  fully  carried  out,  renders  the  gases  within  the  sewers 
comparatively  harmless,  by  admitting  fresh  air  to  them  at  fre- 
quent intervals,  and  in  abundant  quantities. 

For  several  reasons,  however,  this  remedy  is  not  to  be 
entirely  relied  upon  in  Chicago.  Onr  streets  are  not  all  paved, 
and  the  paved  ones  are  not  always  well  cleaned;  and  the  man- 
hole covers  are  liable  to  be  clogged  with  mud  and  dirt,  and  the 
openings  closed. 


8 

In  winter  these  openings  are  often  covered  with  snow,  and 
they  are  apt  to  be  almost  herrneticallj'  sealed  by  frozen  mnd 
or  ice. 

2d,  Hence  we  recommend  an  additional  remedy,  a  further 
means  by  which  the  sewers  can  breathe  freely. 

The  waste  and  soil  pipes  of  every  house  should  run  of  uni- 
form size  from  the  street  sewer  to,  say,  5  feet  above  the  roof  of 
the  house,  without  any  trap  whatever. 

We  shall  consider  hereafter  the  precautions  necessary  within 
the  house. 

This  pipe,  running  through  the  house,  would  generally  cre- 
ate an  npward  draft.  The  perforated  man-hole  covers  would 
admit  fresh  air  to  the  sewers.  Sometimes  the  action  might  be 
reversed;  but  at  all  times,  either  through  the  man-hole  covers 
or  through  the  open  soil  pipes,  sewers  would  have  unobstructed 
connection  with  the  atmosphere,  and  a  circulation  of  air  would 
be  maintained  in  them  which  would  very  probably  keep  them 
free  from  poisonous  gases. 

The  objection  which  is  commonly  made  to  this  plan  is,  that 
no  one  is  willing  to  have  the  gases  from  the  sewer  pass  through 
his  house.  We  believe  this  to  be  an  erroneous  view  of  the 
matter.  It  is  our  belief  that,  if  everv  house  in  Chicao;o  could 
be  connected  with  the  sewers  in  the  manner  described,  the 
danger  to  the  entire  community  from  typhoid  fever,  diphtheria, 
scarlet  fever,  and  other  zymotic  diseases  would  be  greatly 
lessened. 

It  is  certainly  possible  to  protect  individual  houses  against 
gases  from  the  main  sewer  by  a  ventilated  trap  on  the  house 
drain;  but  as  surely  as  the  gases  within  the  sewers  of  the  city 
become  injurious  from  the  want  of  pure  air,  so  surely  will  they 
find  their  way  into  houses  which  are  not  thorouglily  protected. 
And  it  may  finally  happen  tliat  the  diseases  generated  by  the 
unventilated  sewers  will,  tlirough  contagion,  reach  the  occu- 
]iant8  of  the  houses  having  the  best  and  most  expensive  system 
of  sewers  and  plumbing. 


We  believe  that  the  broad  view  is  the  true  one;  that  what 
is  best  for  the  health  of  all  the  people,  is  best  for  the  indivi- 
dual; and  we  therefore  strongly  recommend  that  in  all  cases 
the  house  drains  connect  with  sewers  without  a  trap. 

It  remains  for  us  to  consider  the  dangers  to  be  apprehended 
from  the 


DRAINAGE    SYSTEM    WITHIN    TIIK    HOUSE. 


It  is  now  believed  that  the  air  contained  in  the  soil  and 
waste  pipes  of  a  house  is  more  foul  and  dangerous  than  that 
of  the  main  sewers.  Hence  the  necessity  of  disinfecting  them 
by  the  admission  of  pure  air;  and,  if  possible,  of  creating  a 
circulation  of  air  through  them.  We  must  also  prevent  the 
access  of  the  air  in  these  pipes  to  the  house  itself. 

The  first  requisite  is  the  use  of  a  material  which  shall  be 
impervious  to  water  or  gases;  which  shall  resist  acids;  which 
shall  be  too  strong  to  be  broken  by  a  blow  or  pressure,  and 
which  shall  have  as  few  joints  as  possible. 

Lead  was  once  almost  universally  used  for  soil  and  waste 
pipes;  but  it  has  been  abandoned  by  the  best  plumbers.  It 
is  liable  to  corrosion  by  acids  and  alkalies;  it  is  apt  to  sag  if 
not  fully  supported,  and  with  a  large  vertical  pipe  it  is  very 
difficult  to  support  it  well;  and  it  may  be  gnawed  by  rats,  or 
be  perforated  by  a  nail  carelessly  driven. 

Cast  iron  pipes,  not  less  than  four  inches  in  inside  diameter 
and  one-quarter  inch  in  thickness,  coated  with  tar  inside  and  out- 
side, and  thoroughly  leaded  and  caulked  at  the  joints,  are  the 
best  and  cheapest,  and  are  recommended  for  general  use.  They 
should  be  tested  before  using. 

Wrought  iron  pipe,  coated  with  enamel  or  other  substance 
impervious  to  water  and  acids,  is  perhaps  equally  good,  but  is 


10 

more  expensive,  and  perhaps  more  liable  to  rust,  in  spite  of 
the  enamel. 

The  house  drains  are  still  commonly  made  of  glazed  tile, 
joined  by  cement,  and  laid  under  ground.  These  are  now 
regarded  by  tlie  best  authorities  as  unfit  for  the  purpose. 
They  are  tlie  cause  of  much  of  the  trouble  from  sewer  gas. 
Good  vitrified  pipe  does  not  itself  leak,  but  the  cement  joints 
are  very  apt  to  do  so,  even  if  undisturbed;  and  these  joints 
are,  from  many  causes,  liable  to  be  broken,  and  then  the  sew- 
age escapes  from  the  drain  and  saturates  the  earth  under  the 
house.  It  is  out  of  sight,  and  the  fracture  of  the  pipe,  or 
opening  of  the  joint,  may  not  be  suspected  until  bad  odors  or 
illness  in  the  household  lead  to  its  discovery. 

The  prominent  sanitary  engineers  of  this  country  and  of 
England  unite  in  declaring  that  no  house  can  be  considered 
safe  from  malarial  poisons  in  which  the  soil  or  sewer-pipe  is 
made  of  any  kind  of  earthen  pipe. 

We  recommend,  therefore,  that  tile  be  abandoned  for 
house  drains,  and  that  the  cast-iron  soil  pipe,  described  above, 
be  continued,  of  uniform  size  and  without  a  traj),  to  the  main 
sewer.  The  soil  pipe  should,  if  possible,  be  accessible  for 
inspection  throughout  its  entire  length,  and  should  be  carried 
above  the  cellar  floor,  where  this  is  practicable. 

The  opening  in  the  outer  wall  or  foundation  should  be 
larger  tlian  the  soil  |)ipe,  to  allow  the  house  to  settle  without 
breaking  the  joints.  The  basement  or  cellar  floor  should 
always  be  covered  with  concrete  or  asphaltnm. 


TRAPS. 

Every  sink,  bath-tub,  wash-basin  and  water  closet  should 
have  a  trap  as  near  to  it  as  possible,  to  avoid  accumulations  of 
gas. 


11 

To  avoid  siphoning  and  'pressure  of  sewer  gas,  every  trap 
should  be  ^ventilated  by  a  i)ipe  of  not  less  than  one  inch 
inside  diameter,  running  from  its  highest  point  into  a  se])a- 
rate  vent  pipe,  which  should  be  carried  above  the  roof. 

The  overflow  pi])es  from  wash-basins  and  bath-tubs  should 
connect  with  the  waste  pipes  between  the  trap  and  the  basin  or 
tub.  It  is  better  that  all  the  pipes  be  of  iron,  but  lead  may  be 
used  for  the  smaller  waste  and  vent  pipes — j^rovided  that  the 
connections  between  lead  and  iron  pipes  be  made  by  means  of 
brass  or  tinned  iron  ferules,  soldered.  No  waste  pipe  should 
be  less  than  two  inches  in  diameter.  The  safes  under 
wash-basins,  sinks,  water  closets,  etc.,  where  these  are  used, 
should  in  no  case  connect  with  the  soil  or  waste  pipe,  but 
should  be  drained  by  separate  and  independent  pipes  leading 
to  the  kitchen  sink. 

The  Bell  traps,  which  are  in  common  use,  we  consider 
unsafe. 


WATER    CLOSETS. 


The  water  closet  most  generally  used  is  the  fan-closet 
This  we  cannot  recommend. 

Probably  no  perfect  water  closet  has  yet  been  devised,  but 
the  self-flushing  hopper  closet,  and  several  of  the  improved 
closets,  have  remedied  some  of  the  most  dangerous  defects  of 
the  pan-closets,  and  we  recommend  their  use.  In  addition  to 
the  ventilation  of  the  soil  pipe  and  the  trap,  it  is  advisable  to 
run  a  pi])e  or  tin  conductor  from  the  seat  of  the  closet  to  a 
ventilating  shaft  or  to  a  chimney.  This  will  tend  to  cari-y  off 
the  odors  and  any  gases  which  might  escape  from   the  closet. 

The  custom  of  supplying  water  closets  with  water  directly 
from  the  service  pipes  may  be  dangerous,  and  has  been  pro- 
hibited  by  law  in  London  since  1871.     The  danger   is  from 


12 

contamination  of  the  drinking  water,  in  consequence  of  the 
occasional  emptying  of  the  pipes,  either  from  work  on  the 
mains  or  small  pipes,  or,  more  commonly,  from  the  small  size  of 
the  main  service  pipe,  which  fails  to  keep  the  upper  pipes  of 
a  house  filled  while  water  is  being  drawn  on  the  lower  floors. 
As  the  water  leaves  the  pipes,  foul  air  from  the  water  closet 
enters  them,  and  is  rapidly  absorbed  by  the  cold  water  as  it 
flows  back  into  the  pipes.  This  is  believed  to  be  a  cause  of 
typhoid  fever. 

Every  water  closet,  on  the  upper  floors  at  least,  should  there- 
fore be  supplied  with  water  from  a  separate  tank,  through  a 
pipe  not  less  than  one  inch  and  a  quarter  in  diameter,  to 
insure  rapid  flushing  of  the  bowl  and  the  trap. 

Every  room  containing  a  water  closet  should  be  ventilated 
by  a  flue,  and  should  have  direct  communication  with  the 
outer  air,  either  by  a  window  or  light  shaft. 


TO    INSURE    COMPLETE    VENTILATION. 

We  have  recommended  that  the  soil  pipe  run  from  the  sewer 
to  the  roof  without  trap,  and  that  all  traps  to  waste  and  over- 
flow pipes  be  ventilated. 

This  system  can  be  improved,  and  a  constant  circulation  of 
air  secured  through  the  pipes,  by  an  iron  pipe  connecting 
with  the  soil  pipe  near  the  point  where  it  passes  through  the 
outer  wall,  of  uniform  size  with  it,  and  running  out  above  the 
roof. 

CATCH    BASINS. 

The  Board  of  Public  Works  of  Chicago  now  requires  every 
householder  to  build  and  use  a  catch-basin,  into  M'hich  kitchen 
sinks  must  empty.  They  should  be  built  outside  of  the  house 
wherever  this  is  possible,  and  should  be  ventilated  by  a  four- 
inch  ])ipe  carried  above  the  roof. 


13 

The  following  is  a  brief 

SUMMARY    OF    TPIE    KECOMMENDATIONS 

made  by  your  Committee: 

I.  Concrete  the  around  under  the  entire  buildin"-. 

II.  Ventilate  the  main  sewers  by  a  perforated  cover  on 
every  man-hole. 

III.  Every  house  to  have  a  cast-iron  soil  pipe,  not  less  than 
four  inches  in  diameter  and  one-quarter  inch  in  thickness, 
tarred  inside  and  outside,  running  from  sewer  to  roof,  without 
a  trap,  accessible  for  inspection  throughout  its  entire  length, 
and  with  as  great  a  fall  as  possible;  the  openings  for  waste 
and  soil  pipes  in  the  house  walls  to  be  larger  than  the  pipes, 
to  allow  for  settling. 

IV.  Every  sink,  wash  basin,  bath  tub  and  water-closet  (ex- 
cept the  "  trapless  "  closets)  to  be  trapped. 

V.  Every  trap  to  be  ventilated  from  its  highest  point  into 
a  pipe  running  out  above  the  roof  and  disconnected  from  the 
soil  pipe. 

VI.  Joints  in  iron  pipes  to  be  leaded  and  caulked,  or  rust 
joints.  Joints  between  iron  and  lead  pipes  to  be  made  with 
tinned  iron  or  brass  ferules,  soldered. 

VII.  Catch-basins  to  be  built  outside  of  the  house  wherever 
possible,  and  ventilated  by  a  special  pipe. 

VIII.  Water-closets  to  connect  with  the  outer  air  by  a 
window  or  light  shaft,  and  to  have  a  ventilating  flue. 

IX.  Avoid  pan  closets,  and  use  hopper  or  improved  closets. 

X.  On  the  upper  floors  each  water-closet  to  be  flushed  from 
a  separate  tank,  through  a  ])ipe  not  less  than  one  and  one- 
quarter  inch  in  diameter. 


14 

XI.  Catcli-basins    to    be   periodically  cleaned    by  the    city 
authorities. 


SANITAKY    LEGISLATION. 

It  is  the  custom  of  all  cities  to  control,  by  municipal  ordin- 
ance and  by  supervision,  matters  affecting  the  public  health. 
Nothing  can  more  properly  come  within  the  scope  of  munici- 
pal legislation  than  measures  regulating  house  drainage,  in 
order  to  ])revent,  as  far  as  possible,  the  generation  and  spread 
of  infectious  diseases.  It  is  obviously  necessary  to  make  the 
precautions  obligatory  upon  all  the  people,  as  their  efficacy 
depends  on  the  general  use  of  them,  and  it  is  to  the  interest 
of  all  that  they  should  be  universally  adopted. 

Your  Committee,  therefore,  recommend  that  an  ordinance 
be  passed  by  the  Common  Council  of  Chicago  embodying  the 
most  important  of  the  foregoing  recommendations,  as  follows: 

I.  That  every  house  which  shall  be  connected  with  the  city 
sewers,  after  this  ordinance  goes  into  effect,  shall  have  a  con- 
tinuous pipe  of  not  less  than  four  inches  inside  diameter, 
running  from  the  street  sewer  to  at  least  two  feet  above  the 
roof  of  the  house,  without  any  trap  throughout  its  entire 
length;  the  opening  at  the  house  wall  to  be  larger  than  the 
soil  pipe,  to  allow  for  settling. 

[Note. — As  there  may  be  some  who  will  prefer  U)  use  a  trap  on  the 
house  drain  or  soil  pipe,  this  vent  pipe  may  in  that  case  be  made  indepen- 
dent of  the  house  drainage,  and  be  carried  through  the  house  without  any 
opening  into  it.] 

II.  Every  sink,  basin,  bath  tub  and  water-closet  (except  the 
"  trapless  "  closets)  to  be  trapped,  and  every  trap  to  have  a 
vent  pi]>e  from  its  highest  point. 

III.  Joints  in  iron  pipes  to  be  leaded  and  caulked  or  rust 
joints.  Joints  between  iron  and  lead  pipe  to  be  made  with 
tinned  iron  or  brass  ferules,  soldered. 


15 

IV.  Soil  pipes  to  be  of  iron. 

V.  All  water-closets  to  be  connected  with  the  outer  air  by  a 
window  and  ventilating  Hue  or  a  light  shaft, 

VI.  Sanitary  inspectors  tu  be  appointed,  under  the  direction 
of  the  Health  Commissioner,  to  enforce  the  observance  of  the 
foregoing  provisions. 

Your  Committee  desire  to  draw  the  attention  of  tlie  citizens 
of  Chicago  to  another  subject,  allied  to  house  drainage,  and 
perhaps  not  second  to  it  in  importance.     This  is  the 

VENTILATION    AND    HEATING    OF    HOUSES. 

In  our  cold  and  variable  climate  it  is  always  something  of  a 
problem  how  to  heat  and  also  ventilate  our  buildings,  and  yet 
there  is  generally  very  little  thought  or  study  given  to  it, 
either  by  the  owner  of  the  building  or  the  architect. 

The  desire  to  build  as  cheaply  and  to  heat  as  cheaply  as 
possible,  has  led  to  the  adoption  of  bad  methods  of  heating, 
and  of  no  methods  at  all  of  ventilation.  Many  of  the  throat 
diseases  so  common  in  Chicago  are  caused  by  the  over- heated 
and  bad  air  of  our  buildings;  and  many  of  the  malarial  dis- 
eases, arising  from  sewer  gas  admitted  into  houses  by  defective 
plumbing,  might  be  avoided  by  thorough  ventilation  of  the 
houses. 

The  most  common  error  is  in  using  furnaces  of  too  small  a 
size,  which  have  to  be  forced  to  a  red  heat  in  the  coldest 
weather,  thus  burning  the  air  and  rendering  it  unfit  to 
breathe.  This  evil  is  intensified  by  having  the  cold  air  pipe 
and  the  conductor  pipes  through  the  house  of  too  small  a  size. 
This  method  is  recommended  bv  manv  architects  and  dealers 
in  furnaces,  to  gratify  the  almost  universal  desire  for  economj'. 
But  it  is  false  economy,  for  it  is  injurious  to  health  and  is  des- 
tructive to  furniture  and  walls,  through  the  unnatural  dryness 
of  the  air  which  it  produces. 


16 

Your  Committee  would  earnestly  recommend  the  use  of 
large  furnaces,  with  ample  supply  of  cold  air,  and  large  con- 
ductor pipes  throughout  the  house,  so  that  the  air  from  the 
reo-isters  need  never  be  too  warm  to  be  inhaled  with  comfort. 

Where  it  is  convenient  to  use  open  fires,  or  to  have  open 
fire-places,  even  if  no  fires  be  made  in  them,  or  flues  opening 
at  the  floor,  an  outlet  is  provided  for  the  cold  air  of  the  room 
at  the  floor,  a  circulation  of  the  air  maintained,  and  good 
ventilation  and  a  pure,  wholesome  atmosphere  secured. 

The  cost  of  a  building  may  be  somewhat  increased  by  a 
thorough  system  of  drainage  and  heating  and  ventilation,  but 
it  is  surely  better  to  economize  in  any  other  direction — in  the 
size  and  ornamentation  of  our  houses,  in  the  furniture,  or 
the  style  of  living — than  in  those  things  which  are  essential  to 
the  health  and  lives  of  the  occupants. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

FREDERICK  BAUMANN, 
JAMES  R.  WILLETT, 
BRYAX  LATHROP, 

Committee. 


REPOirJ^  OF  COMMriTEE 

— OK   THK — 

CITIZENS'  ASSOCIATION    OV  CHICAGO, 

ON    POLICE. 


To  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Citizens'  Association  of  the  City  of 
Chicago.  Gentlemen  :  Your  Committee  on  Police,  to  whom  was  referred  the  ex- 
pediency of  increasing  the  force  of  this  city,  and  of  devising  means  by  which  this 
end  shall  be  assured,  beg  to  report  as  follows  : 

Immediately  upon  appointment  they  placed  themselves  in  conespondence 
with  the  officials  of  the  principal  cities  of  the  Union  with  a  view  of  obtaining  from 
them  all  the  information  practically  possible,  and  in  the  meantime  endeavored  to 
ascertain  if  it  were  feasible  to  increase  the  force  by  reducing  the  pay  of  the  present 
members  thereof. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  expenditures  of  the  Police  Department  of 
the  City  of  Chicago  are  limited  by  law.  After  a  thorough  investigation,  we  found 
that  the  pay  of  the 

AVERAGE  POLICEMAN  WAS  $945 

per  annum,  while  New  York  paid  its  policemen  an  average  of  $1,050  per  annum, 
and  Boston  from  $750  to  $1,050  each  per  annum  and  perquisites.  We  found  that 
our  men  had  but  ten  hours  relief  from  duty  in  which  to  enjoy  the  society  of  their 
families  out  of  forty-eight  hours,  and  that  even  during  these  ten  hours  they  were  as- 
liable  as  at  any  other  time  to  be  called  upon.  Every  alternate  night  they  were 
compelled  to  sleep  at  the  station,  and  the  balance  of  their  time  was  spent  in  patroll- 
ing 122  square  miles  of  territory,  making  something  over  one  mile  to  the  man- 
When  we  consider  that  this  was  done  by  a  patrol  force  of  150  men  (dividing  the 
actual  force  by  the  two  periods  of  night  and  day),  your  Committee  did  not  con- 
sider that  they  were  overpaid  by  a  compensation  which  ranges  from  15  to  20  per 
cent,  below  that  of  the  cities  of  New  York  and  Boston,  and  immediately  abandoned 
all  thoughts  of  raising  money  to  increase  the  police  force  by  reducing  the  salaries 
of  present  incumbents. 

In  London  and  New  York  there  is  one  policeman  to  every  400  of  the  popu-la- 
tion,  in  Boston  one  to  every  500,  while  we  have 

ONE    PATROLMAN    TO    EVERY    I,500 

of  our  fixed  population.  When  the  rapidity  with  which,  from  various  sources,  the 
population  is  increased,  is  borne  in  mind,  your  Committee  do  not  hesitate  to  recom- 
mend the  immediate  increase  of  the  force  to  800  men,  which,  together  with  our 
present  admirable  system  of  telephone  communication,  and  with  the  patrol-wagon 
system,  admirable  in  itself,  and  most  highly  satisfactory  in  its  results,  would,  in 
our  estimation,  give  us  an  equivalent  to  1,000  men,  which   number  we   are  led  to 


believe,  from  our  conversation  with  various  officials,  as  well  as  prominent  residents 
and  others  having  the  welfare  of  our  city  and  its  health  and  good  order  at  heart, 
will  be  sufficient  for  some  time  tq  come.  To  accomplish  this,  the  increased 
amount  which  must  be  placed  to  the  order  of  our  police  fund  would  be  in  round 
numbers  in  the  neighborhood  of  half  a  million  dollars  ($450,000  might  do  it,  but 
the  former  figures  are  believed  to  be  nearer  correct.) 

The  only  way  out  of  the  dilemma  which  has  presented  itself  to  our  minds  is 
to  increase  our 

VALUATION  OF  TAXABLE  PROPERTY. 

Our  assessed  valuation  to-day  is  lower  than  ever.  The  coming  year  brings 
with  it  a  new  valuation  of  real  estate  and  personal  property  ;  prosperity  is  once 
more  smiling  her  brightest  smile  upon  our  business  community,  and  it  would  seem 
as  though  all  things  conspired  to  make  this  the  accepted  time  when  this  increased 
valuation  could  be  made  with  less  effiDrt,  and  would  be  met  with  greater  cheerful- 
ness, than  at  any  time  since  when  ten  years  ago  the  whole  world  commenced  to 
applaud  our  pluck,  and  so  magnanimously  helped  us  on  to  our  present  prosperity. 

That  we  must  have  the  increase  of  the  force  is  no  longer  a  question  in  itself 
but  is  a  settled  fact. 

Not  only  do  our  people  require  it,  but  foreign  capitalists  seeking  investment 
want  a  guarantee  that  their  interests  will  be  protected  before  making  their  risks  at 
low  rates  of  interest. 

And  we,  therefore,  in  submitting  our  reports,  would  most  respectfully  but 

earnestly  beg  that  the  incoming  board  would,  in  taking  up  the  subject  where    your 

subscribers  have  left  it,  carry  it  out  to  a  speedy  and  successful  issue.     All  of  which. 

is  respectfully  submitted. 

J.  Hall  Dow, 

Robert  Law, 

Thos.  Wilce, 

Elijah  S.  Alexander, 

Harold  S.  Peck, 

Committee  on  Police. 


/ 


OPEN  LETTER, 

TO    THE     EXECUTIVE     COMMITTEE    OF    THE    CITIZENS' 

ASSOCIATION, 

BY  HENRY  C.  REW. 


Gentlemen  : — This  statement  made  by  the  undersigned,  on  behalf  of  the 
capitalists,  laborers,  tax-payers,  property-owners  and  corporations  of  the 
city  of  Chicago,  is  respectfully  submitted  to  the  Citizens'  Association : 

"  Whatsoever  a  man  soweth  that  shall  he  also  reap." 

Under  the  reign  of  the  fixed  and  invariable  laws  that  from  and  to  all 
eternity  govern  the  whole  physical  and  moral  universe,  this  rule  holds 
good,  not  only  as  applied  to  individuals,  but  also  as  applied  to  cities,  com- 
munities, states,  and  nations. 

The  harvest  that  Chicago  is  reaping  at  present  can  be  itemized  as  fol- 
lows, namely : 

There  is  an  unusual  amount  of  crime  and  lawlessness  throughout  the 
city,  life  and  property  thereby  being  rendered  insecure ;  our  homes,  busi- 
ness blocks  and  factories,  to  a  degree  heretofore  unexampled  in  this  city, 
are  at  the  mercy  of  thieves  and  rioters;  our  citizens  are  attacked  in  our 
streets,  robbed  and  maimed;  our  policemen  are  shot  while  on  duty,  and 
the  murderers  are  still  at  large. 

The  liquor  interests  of  our  city  are  organized,  bold  and  defiant,  and  bv 
the  shrewd  manipulation  of  our  taxing  system  are  to  a  great  and  unwar- 
rantable extent  casting  the  cost  of  pauperism  and  crime  caused  by  it  upon 
the  real  estate  and  other  important  and  self-sustaining  interests  of  the 
city.  About  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  carrying  on  the  various  depart- 
ments of  our  municipal  government  and  the  interest  of  the  public  debt 
is  thrown  upon  real  estate. 

It  is  believed  that  legislation  is  procured  in  many  instances  so  that 
private  and  corporate  interests  are  advanced  by  the  use  of  monev, 
and  that  there  are  times  when  the  public  are  thus  plundered  bv  their  own 
elected  servants  under  form  of  law.  Rioters  are  forcing  the  closing  up  of 
large  and  important  manufactories,  denying  to  men  the  right  to  labor  and 
earn  bread  tor  their  families,  and  this  without  being  prompt! v  put  down 
bv  our  civil  authorities. 


Our  river  and  the  outlet  to  our  sewerage  system  is  in  a  very  foul  con- 
dition, polluting  the  source  of  our  water  supply,  and  this,  with  the  pesti- 
lential vapors  arising  from  the  river,  spreading  the  seeds  of  malarial 
fevers,  diptheria  and  other  dangerous  diseases  in  every  household. 

Our  streets  are  in  a  very  filthy  condition,  and  a  constant  disgrace  to  our 
municipality,  and  a  shame  to  every  citizen ;  no  proper  preparation  is  being 
made  for  the  resulting  needs  of  our  constantly  increasing  population  and 
business,  such  as  the  paving  and  cleaning  of  streets,  building  of  viaducts, 
tunnels  and  other  needed  public  improvements,  for  the  want  of  which  the 
people  of  this  city  are  suffering  to  the  extent  of  millions  of  dollars  each  year. 

We  rightfully  say  to  the  citizens — "  You  shall  not  interfere  with  the 
rights  of  the  public  by  making  more  soot  and  smoke  than  is  necessary." 
Has  not  the  citizen  the  same  right  to  say  to,  the  public—"  You  shall  make 
such  public  improvements  as  are  clearly  necessary  for  my  health  and 
comfort,  and  to  enable  me  to  profitably  and  safely  carry  on  my  business. 
You  shall  suppress  gambling;  you  shall  give  protection  to  life  and  pro- 
perty ;  you  shall  give  us  pure  water ;  you  shall  do  what  you  can  to  place 
the  burden  of  taxation  where  it  rightfully  belongs ;  you  shall  do  what  you 
can  to  elect  good  men  to  office." 

Our  school  system  is  so  poorly  managed  that  our  children  are  packed 
in  overcrowded,  and  therefore  unhealthy  school  houses,  or  swarm  in  the 
streets  without  care  and  education,  owing  to  the  lack  of  accommodation 
for  them. 

Our  citizens  and  the  capitalists  of  our  own  and  other  cities  are  discour- 
aged from  entering  into  manufacturing  enterprises  in  our  midst,  from 
building  stores  and  houses,  owing  to  the  lack  of  spirit  on  the  part  of  our 
people,  and  because  the  public  do  not  properly  provide  for  the    needs  of 

our  city in  the  way  of  schools,  public  improvements,   suppression  of 

crime,  and  the  election  of  capable  and  honest  officials  and  public  servants, 
and  provide  a  proper  protection  to  life  and  health  and  property  interests. 

The  seeds  that  have  been  sown  to  produce  so  foul  and  dangerous  a  crop 
of  evils  can  be  stated  as  follows:  There  is,  first,  and  most  important  of 
all,  the  weakness  and  indifference  of  the  people  themselves,  and  their  lack 
of  attention  to  their  own  interests— second,  they  do  not  rally  round  and 
join  the  only  organization  we  have,  by  means  of  which  all  citizens,  irre- 
spective of  race,  creed  or  party  affiliations,  can  present  a  determined  re- 
sistence  to  the  great  and  growing  evils  which  threaten  and  oppress  them. 

Third,  the  packing  of  our  primary  meetings  for  the  nomination  of  men 
to  occupy  important  municipal  offices,  by  the  liquor  and  gambling  inter- 
ests, and  other  interests  private  and  corporate,  heretofore  charged  with 
corrupting  our  legislation. 

Fourth,  the  use  of  money  at  elections,  to  put  corrupt  men  in  office  who, 
when  in  office,  are  the  servile  tools  of  those  wlio  paid  for  their  election. 
Again,  the  lack  of  attention  to  municipal  matters  by  the  people,  thus  per- 
mitting the  most  dangerous  element  to  control  their  property  and  the 
government  of  the  city. 


Fifth,  the  division  of  people  into  various  political  parties,  thuR  illustrat- 
ing the  fable  of  the  bulls  who  were  invincible  from  the  attack  of  wild 
beasts,  so  long  as  they  kept  together,  but  who  were  ravaged  by  wolves  as 
soon  as  they  could  be  separated  by  their  wily  and  savage  enemies.  The 
best  men  should  be  put  in  office  by  united  effort  without  regard  to  party. 

The  harvest  to  which  the  queenly  city  of  Chicago  is  fully  entitled, 
and  which  it  most  earnestly  desires  to  reap,  situated  as  it  is,  in  the  heart 
of  the  continent,  the  center  of  a  most  magnificent  territory,  and  of  a  vast 
system  of  continental  railways  and  water  communications,  can  be  stated 
as  follows : 

First.  An  honest  and  incorruptible  administration  of  our  city  affain 
and  municipal  government,  thus  placing  our  authorities  in  such  a  position 
that  thev  can  make  the  public  improvements  required,  and  the  other 
necessarv  expenditures  to  bring  our  adminstration  up  to  its  commensurate 
condition. 

Second.  The  narrowing  down  of  the  now  rapidly  broadening  stream 
of  debauchery,  pauperism  and  crime,  which  is  corrupting  our  people  phy- 
sically and  morally,  sowing  the  seeds  of  sickness,  sorrow  and  misery,  not 
only  for  the  present,  but  for  many  generations  to  come,  in  many  house- 
holds, and  filling  our  poor  houses,  jails,  bridewells  and  prisons,  with  sick, 
helpless,  unhappy,  unfortunate  and  dangerous  people,  who  come  out  from 
the  discipline  and  punishments  given  them  by  society — not  reformed, 
honest,  active,  enterprising  and  self-sustaining,  but,  as  all  statistics  show, 
worse  paupers  and  criminals,  and  more  dangerous  to  the  community  than 
ever  before. 

Third.  We  want  a  government  with  the  firmness  and  resolution  to 
protect  and  guard  with  the  whole  civil,  police,  and  military  force  of  the 
people,  every  citizen  and  working  man  in  his  avocation,  and  to  put  down 
all  lawlessness  and  rioting  on  the  shortest  notice. 

Fourth.  We  want  a  more  just  and  equitable  distribution  of  taxation, 
whereby  the  liquor  interests,  the  railroads,  telegraph  and  gas  companies 
city  railways,  and  other  corporations,  and  many  private  citizens  now  very 
lightly  taxed,  but  who,  nevertheless  look  to  the  city  for  the  protection  of 
their  property,  may  be  made  to  pay  their  fair  share  of  taxation ;  also,  a 
general  system  of  licenses  to  be  adapted  for  all  branches  of  business,  in 
order  that  the  burden  of  taxation,  now  largely  borne  by  real  estate,  may 
be  fairly  divided  between  all  classes  of  property  and  business  interests, 
and  thus  be  widely  disti-ibuted,  hardly  felt  and  easily  borne. 

By  just  and  equitable  taxation,  every  encouragement  should  be  given 
to  property  owners  and  capitalists  to  construct  buildings  of  every  descrip- 
tion, in  order  to  accommodate,  at  moderate  rents,  the  wants  of  our  rapidly 
growing  business  and  industrial  population. 

We  want  a  clean  river,  pure  drinking  water,  clean  streets,  and  a  steady 
system  for  all  public  improvements.  We  want  the  best  of  schools  and 
ample  room  for  all  the  children  desiring  to  attend.      We  want,  in  short, 


6 

Chicago  to  be  what  it  should  be — the  most  enlightened  and  enterprising 
city  in  the  world,  the  best  cleaned,  the  most  cheaply  and  brilliantly 
lighted  at  night,  the  best  governed  and  the  best  educated,  filled  with  heal- 
thy, happy  and  prosperous  people,  and  offering  to  those  who  live  in  other 
mis-governed  and  tax-ridden  cities,  the  safest  place  for  homes,  business 
blocks,  factories  and  other  property,  and  that  it  shall  be  the  best  place  to 
locate  for  the  education,  happiness  and  enlightenment  of  present  and  future 
generations — their  institutions  of  learning  and  the  arts. 

To  reap  the  fruits  and  results  named  above,  it  is  imperatively  necessary 
to  sow  the  following  seeds : 

First.  The  thorough  awakening  of  the  people  of  our  city  to  the  con- 
dition into  which  it  has  fallen,  and  the  great  and  rapidly  growing  dangers 
which  threaten  and  oppress  them. 

Second.  The  fusing  together  into  one  solid  mass  of  all  the  people,  and 
the  corporations  in  the  interests  of  an  honest  and  incorruptable  govern- 
nient. 

Third.  The  election  of  none  but  good  men  to  office  and  give  them 
hearty  support  after  they  are  elected. 

Fourth.  The  education  of  the  people  in  all  the  matters  pertaining  to 
the  good  government  and  the  forming  of  a  solid  front  against  the  en- 
croaching and  corrupting  powers  of  the  great  corporations  and  the  liquor 
interests.  ' 

Fifth.  Such  a  fair  and  just  statement  of  the  great  social  problem 
now  imperatively  pressing  on  us  for  a  solution,  that  the  aforesaid  great 
and  powerful  interests  may  not  be  rendered  unfriendly  or  antagonistic  to 
these  sentiments,  but  may  be  convinced  that  "  honesty  is  the  best  policy." 
That  if  they  sow  honesty  and  fair  dealing,  they  will  surely  reap  the  great 
and  certain  benefits  that  will  flow  to  them  as  a  natural  result;  while  on 
the  other  hand,  if  they  continue  to  sow  the  wind  of  corruption,  dishon- 
esty, inefficiency  and  oppression,  they  will  surely  reap  the  whirlwind  of 
popular  uprisings,  and  the  endangerment  and  possible  destruction  of  their 
interests.  The  best  means,  in  my  I'udgement,  for  accomplishing  the  above 
reforms  and  results,  is  through  the  organization  already  formed,  the  Citi- 
zens' Association,  made  up  as  it  is,  of  merchants,  bankers,  manufacturers, 
property  owners,  laboring  men,  and  other  taxpayers,  without  regard  to 
race,  creed,  or  party,  as  it  offers  a  nucleus  or  rallying  point  to  the  whole 
people  of  the  city ;  but  as  their  organization  can  only  work  within  the 
limits  of  the  authorized  functions  in  the  correction  of  these  evils,  and  as 
that  sphere  is  limited  to  the  task  of  arousing  public  sentiment  and  point- 
ing out  the  proper  remed}^  for  evils,  I,  amongst  others  of  its  members, 
who  feel  a  deep  interest  in  these  matters,  entreat  the  Association  to  call 
upon  all  good  citizens  to  act  promptly  and  decisively. 

Shall  we,  on  your  recommendation,  hold  a  mass  meeting,  or  shall  we 
organize  in  our  wards  to  elect,  if  possible,  good  and  honest  men  to  office, 
even  if  we  have  to  leave  oiu-  partv  lines  to  do  so. 


Rhetoric  cannot  accomplish  results;  action  is  necessary.  We  must 
have  united  eftbrt.  The  issues  are  important.  Can  it  be  possible,  in  view 
of  them,  that  the  citizens  of  this  commercial  centre  of  the  West,  which 
should  be  the  future  capital  of  the  Western  Hemisphere,  will  sit  quietly 
down  and  do  nothing  to  purify  our  political  atmosphere.'  Now  is  the 
time;  the  movement  needs  direction. 

Please  answer  this  letter  publicly,  bearing  in  mind  that  "  Whatsoever  a 
city  sows  that  shall  it  also  reap." 

Yours,  with  much  respect, 

HENRY  C.  REW. 

Chicago,  March  i8,  1882. 


THE   ANSWER. 


Rooms  of  the  Citizens'  Association,  \ 

35  Merchants'  Building,  > 

Chicago,  March  21,  1882.  ) 


HENRY  C.  REW,  ESQ., 
Dear  Sir  : 


Your  open  letter  addressed  to  this  Committee,  under  the  date  of  March 
18,  has  been  under  consideration,  [and  we  submit  the  following  reply  : 

We  are  much  gratified  at  your  accession  to  the  list  of  active  workers  in 
public  affairs,  more  especially  as  you  start  out  with  very  positive  views 
on  the  subjects  presented,  and  an  ardent  desire  to  investigate  and  inform 
yourself  on  the  politico-economic  questions  of  the  day,  as  far  as  they  ap- 
ply to  this  city  and  the  county. 

It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  state  of  affairs  at  this  time  is  such  as  to 
justify,  to  a  great  extent,  the  gloomy  view  which  you  take  of  the  situa- 
tion, while  on  the  other  hand,  the  radical  suggestions  you  make  for  the  re- 
form of  existing  abuses  indicate,  not  only  an  intuitive  perception  and  ap- 
preciation of  the  evils  complained  of,  but  also  an  abiding  faith  in  future 
possibilities,  which  we  cannot  but  share  with  you  to  the  extent  of  believ- 
ing that  if  the  "  seed"  can  be  sown  as  thoroughly  and  carefully  as  you 
desire,  the  "  harvest"  you  wish  for  will  assuredly  be  reaped.  If  you  will 
look  back  for  a  period  of  not  more  than  seven  or  eight  years,  you  will 
find  that  a  great  deal  has  been  done  within  that  comparatively  short  time 
in  bringing  about  reforms  of  administration  and  economy  in  this  city. 
The  same  retrospection  will  convince  you  that  such  reforms  have  only 
been  brought  about  by  persistent  efforts,  sometimes  characterized  as  un- 
seemly zeal,  backed  up  by  the  agitation  of  public  sentiment  through  the 
press;  and  it  will  confirm  you  in  the  opinion  that  the  people,  wjien  fully 
aroused  and  instructed  in  public  matters,  seldom  err,  and  that  when  an 
election  is  properly  and  fairlv  conducted,  and  the  whole  community  par- 
ticipate in  it,  the  result  is  what  the  friends  of  order  and  honesty  desire. 
The  integrity  of  the  great  majority  of  the  people  is  unimpaired,  notwith- 
standing the  debauching  influence  of  saloon-bred  politicians  and  their 
concomitants. 

While  we  question  whether  there  is  "a  very  unusual  amount  of  crime 
and  lawlessness  throughout  the  city,"  we  do  concede  •'  that  our  homes, 
business  blocks  and  factories  are  at  the  mercy  of  thieves  and  rioters  to  an 
unprecedented   degree;"    that  our   "  citizens   are   attacked,   robbed   and 


10 

maimed  "  is  also  true ;  and  that  "  some  of  our  policemen  have  been  shot 
while  on  duty,  and  that  the  murderers  are  still  at  large,"  is  a  patent  fact. 
That  corrupt  practices  have  prevailed  in  the  letting  of  contracts,  we  do 
not  believe,  but  that  corporate  and  private  interests  have  been  advanced 
by  the  use  of  money  with  our  municipal  legislators  has  been  so  freely 
asserted  as  to  gain  wide  credence,  and  we  believe  it  to  be  true ;  and  it 
requires  but  little  knowledge  of  human  nature  and  of  political  history  to 
conclude  that  the  public  has  many  times  been  betrayed  by  their  own 
elected  servants.  But  it  can  scarcely  be  expected  that  the  average  poli- 
tician will  rise  above  the  moral  standard  of  his  immediate  constituents, 
and  if  the  better  class  of  citizens  keep  aloof,  or  withdraw  from  the  political 
arena,  it  is  but  natural  that  the  worse  element  will  seize  that  opportunity 
to  elect  their  men. 

That  our  schools  are  overcrowded,  no  person  with  any  knowledge  of 
the  subject  will  deny,  and  that  an  immediate  erection  of  several  edifice* 
for  school  purposes  is  necessary  is  painfully  apparent. 

As  for  our  streets,  their  shameful  condition  speaks  eloquently  of  our 
disgrace,  and  visitors  from  contemporary  cities  must  look  with  utter 
astonishment  and  disgust  on  the  spectacle  presented,  and  wonder  at  the 
supineness  and  lack  of  public  spirit  that  sufters  such  a  condition  of  things 
to  exist. 

Our  water  for  domestic  purposes  is  polluted  so  much  that  part  of  the 
time  it  returns  to  us  an  infinitesimal  portion,  at  each  draught,  of  the  diluted 
sewage  which  passes  into  the  lake. 

Although  it  cannot  be  expected  that  Chicago,  under  all  its  circum- 
stances of  rapid  growth,  and  the  legislative  and  other  embarrassments 
with  which  it  is  surrounded,  politically  and  geographically,  can  at  once 
be  changed  from  its  present  condition  into  the  Utopia  you  desire,  and, 
although  we  feel  that  the  principle  of  misgovernment,  or  "  how  not  to  do 
it,"  has  reached  a  point  in  the  history  of  this  city  wholly  unendurable, 
yet,  no  candid  and  honest  man  will  accept  as  a  fact  susceptible  of  proof, 
that  any  of  our  present  superior  officials  have  been  guilty  of  such  frauds  as 
the  embezzlement  or  misappropriation  of  money ;  their  sins  are  more  of 
omission  than  of  commission ; — they  have  neglected  to  suppress  the  gamb- 
lers until  public  opinion  forced  them  into  the  movement,  which  is  now  in 
course  of  execution  in  such  a  feeble  manner,  that  application  has  been 
made  to  us  to  reinforce  the  prosecution ;  they  have  allowed  a  whole 
season  to  pass  away  without  beginning  the  works  necessary  to  inaugurate 
the  onlv  means  we  have  to  purify  the  river  and  our  drinking  water,  and 
they  have  omitted  to  expend  a  considerable  portion  of  the  sums  appropriated 
for  the  purpose  of  the  important  items  of  street  cleaning  and  health  service 
during  the  year,  for  which  the  credit  was  given ;  there  have  been,  we  think, 
some  manifest  lapses  of  duty  in  the  enforcement  of  other  ordinances.  They 
have  pursued  a  "  penny  wise  and  pound  foolish"  policy  with  regard  to 
their  financial  arrangements,  by  omitting  to  avail  themselves  of  the  advan- 
tages of  the  license  system  as  far  as  it  has  been  in  their  power,  and  starv- 


11 

ing  the  public  service  by  neglecting  their  interests  in  the  annual  assess- 
ment of  property ;  but  any  charge  of  peculation  or  pecuniary  dishonesty 
is,  in  our  judgment,  unwarranted. 

Your  suggestion  that  all  good  men  should  stand  by  their  constituted 
authorities  when  duly  elected,  is  one  of  such  eminent  justice  and 
propriety,  that  it  only  needs  statement  for  endorsement.  It  is  the  corroll- 
ary  of  the  sovereignty  of  the  people ; — to  state  it  tersely,  do  your  best  to  elect 
your  man,  and  if  defeated,  support  the  other  man,  unless  he  is  found  to  be 
dishonest  or  incapable. 

Intelligent  men,  actuated  by  a  sense  of  public  duty,  and  with  the  know- 
ledge of  antecedents,  are  justified  in  criticising  administrative  officers,  and 
it  would  seem  as  if  those  officers  should,  by  a  wise  conciliation  of  public 
opinion,  strengthen  their  administration  by  making  friends  of  their  con- 
stituents, even  if  former  political  opponents. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  many  of  those  who  should  and  would  uphold 
them  are  treated  with  marked  disrespect  and  contumely  as  the  conse- 
quence of  a  political  victory,  or  because  of  some  fancied  wrong,  the 
natural  inclination  of  all  such  men  to  support  those  in  power  is  outraged, 
and  a  desire  for  change  becomes  very  apparent.  This  is  reflected  in  the 
wish  to  withhold  supplies  of  money,  and  we  venture  the  assertion,  made 
in  the  light  of  observations  by  each  one  of  us,  that  the  objection  to  raising 
more  money  for  public  purposes  is  greatly  owing  to  the  fear,  not  that  it 
would  be  embezzled,  but  that  its  application  might  either  be  delayed,  inju- 
diciously appropriated  or  surrounded  by  the  council  with  such  embarrass- 
ments in  its  disposition  as  would  render  the  immediate  benefits  desired 
from  its  use  nugatory. 

We  believe  it  to  be  a  proposition  evident  to  all  who  will  examine  it  that 
our  City  Government  has  not  the  means  to  carry  on  its  business  from 
present  resources — and  that  those  resources  cannot  be  augmented  under 
our  present  laws  except  by  the  application  of  both  of  two  systems : 

First.     An  increase  of  the  license  system,  and 

Second.     An  augmentation  of  the  assessment  of  our  ta.xable  property 
real  and  personal. 

A  readjustment  of  both  of  these  sources  of  revenue,  even  on  a  mode- 
rate scale  of  increase  would  enable  the  authorities  to  carry  out  certain  re- 
forms in  the  police,  health  and  street  cleaning  departments,  and  if  not  too 
circumscribed,  in  the  erection  of  viaducts  and  tunnels,  in  the  turning  of 
bridges  by  steam,  and  the  betterment  of  paveinents ;  but  they  would  not 
fill  the  larger  requirements  for  the  purpose  which  are  so  prominent  as  to 
need  no  particular  mention,  and  which  we  believe  might  justly  be  thrown 
over  to  a  future  generation  for  payment,  by  an  increase  of  the  public 
debt,  which  increase  would  not  be  outside  of  constitutional  limit,  if  an 
assessment  of  our  property  at  its  cash  value  as  required  bv  law  could 
be  had. 


12 

We  cannot  do  better  than  to  state  here  our  belief  that  a  just  system  of 
licensing  special  classes  of  business,  if  not  made  oppressive  in  amount, 
would  be  wise  and  proper,  but  that  if  such  licenses  are  charged  at  an 
amount  which  would  render  the  liquor  traffic,  for  instance,  impossible 
in  certain  cases,  a  fundamental  principle  of  justice  would  be  immedi- 
ately hazarded.  That  principle  is  that  all  men  should  be  protected  in 
their  lawful  avocations  by  the  law.  The  traffic  in  liquor  is  lawful,  and 
although,  perhaps,  always  offensive  to  many  excellent  men,  and  at 
times  the  cause  of  particular  offense  to  a  wider  range  of  good  citizens, 
it  should  be  regulated,  not  suppressed ;  but  to  regulate  it  by  the  infliction  of 
a  license  fee  which  would  render  its  prosecution  in  many,  and  those  the 
least  offensive  cases,  impossible,  is  simply  to  defeat  a  good  object  by  an 
intolerable  oppression.  This  will  hold  good  in  many  other  cases,  like 
pawn-brokers,  second-hand  dealers  in  merchandise,  junk  dealers  and  the 
like,  whose  business  has  been  at  times  abused  by  illegal  transactions,  but 
who  are  very  necessary  adjuncts  of  civilization,  and  who  should  be  regu- 
lated, not  suppressed  by  too  heavy  licenses. 

You  are  correct  in  the  idea  that  real  estate  bears  a  greater  proportion  of 
taxes  than  some  other  property,  as  the  following  statement  indicates : 

The  equalized  valuation  of  property  in  the  city  of  Chicago  is. $119,150,000 

Real  Estate $90,100,000 

Personal 26,240,000 

Railroad 2,810,000 

But  when  vou  consider  these  astounding  figures,  your  astonishment 
that  the  personal  property  of  Chicago  is  only  valued  at  twenty-six  mil- 
lions of  dollars,  will  be  increased,  not  diminished,  by  the  consideration 
that  real  estate  is  assessed  only  ninety  millions  on  what  is  believed  to  be 
worth  from  four  hundred  to  five  hundred  millions. 

We  have  said  enough,  we  think,  to  satisfy  you  that  our  views  are  mainly 
in  harmonv  with  yours  ;-we  need,  we  will  say,  reform  in  many  departments 
of  local  government,  but  we  need  more  than  anything,  the  means  of  carry- 
ing out  certain  necessary  improvements,  even  on  a  small  scale, —  the 
necessity  for  which  increases  each  dav. 

Now,  vou  ask  our  ad\ice  as  to  what  should  be  done  under  the  present 
circumstances,  which  include  the  pending  city  and  town  elections.  Will 
the  Citizens  Association  call  a  mass  meeting  to  consider  the  matters  pre- 
sented in  your  letter.'  to  which  we  reply,  that  at  a  recent  meeting  of  the 
Association  called  for  the  purpose  of  considering  that  question,  it  was  de- 
cided to  be  unwise. 

That  a  spontaneous  movement  of  the  tax-payers  and  other  good  people 
who  desire  to  become  tax-payers  by  the  accumulation  of  property,  should 
immediately  be  inaugurated  within  the  wards  is  unquestioned,  and  we 
heartily  reccommend  it.  This  can  readily  be  done,  and  should  be  carried 
on  outside  of  party  organizations  and  feeling.  Its  result  would  be  sur- 
prising to  those  unacquainted  with  the  effect  of  such  a  proceeding. 


L3 


Until  our  citizens  fulh'  realise  the  evil  results  of  omitting  to  assemble 
themselves  together  before  an  election  to  discuss  their  local  affairs,  until 
they  can  understand  that  designing  men  know  very  well  the  effect  of  jw^/i 
meetings^  and  utilize  similar  ones  for  corrupt  purposes,  until  they  compre- 
hend that  those  interests  adverse  to  good  government  are  always  wakeful 
and  active,  while  good  men  sit  supinely  down  and  allow  the  pot-house 
voters  to  crowd  them  from  the  primaries  and  the  polls,  contenting  them- 
selves with  verbal  protests  after  the  act  has  been  consummated ;  so  long  as 
the  better  and  more  conscientious  element  of  our  population,  from  fear  of 
contamination,  or  from  the  moral  cowardice  which  grows  out  of 
too  conservative  principles  shall  keep  themselves  aloof  from  local  poli- 
tics, so  long  shall  we  be  subjected  to  such  wrongs  as  those  you  have  so 
eloquently  set  forth. 

But  if  the  people  can  be  made  to  understand  that  a  "  government  of 
the  people,  b}-  the  people,  for  the  people,"  is  as  necessary  in  its  local 
application  as  in  the  greater  national  sense,  then — if  they  will  assemble  and 
look  to  their  elections,  we  shall  have  less  complaint  and  your  ideas  will 
be  the  sooner  realized. 

"  The  price  of  liberty  is  eternal  vigilance."  This  vigilance  must  be 
exercised  at  each  recurring  election. 

The_f(7oa'  seed  to  be  sown  is  the  education  of  the  people  in  sound  political 
principles;  the  hardest  is  prosperity;  the  tares  are  neglect  of  individual 
duty.  The  bad  seed  is  the  work  of  professional  and  corrupt  politicians ; 
that  harvest  is  corruption.  , 

"What  a  city  soweth,  that  shall  it  also  reap!" 
Yours  respectfully, 

A.  A.  CARPENTER,  President, 

HENRY  W.  KING,  Vice-President, 

MARSHALL  FIELD, 

R.  T.  CRANE, 

EDSON  KEITH, 

EDWIN  LEE   BROWN, 

MAX  A.  MEYER, 

MURRY  NELSON, 

MARK  KIMBALL, 

ALFRED  BISHOP  MASON, 

FRANCIS  B.  PEABODY, 

MARX  WINEMAN, 

Executive  Committee 
J.  C.  AMBLER,  Secretary, 

Rooms,  35  Merchants'  Building. 


NOTE  OF  WARNING, 


FROM    THE 


CITIZENS'  ASSOCIATION  OF  CHICAGO. 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE 


n 


ON 


Theatres  and  Public  Halls, 


OP    THE 


CITIZENS'  ASSOCmTION 


OF   CHICAGO. 


Rooms,  35  Merchants'  Building. 


J".A.3iTTJJLI^^Z■,     1882, 


CHICAGO: 
Geo.  K.  Hazlitt  &  Co.,  Printers,  172  and  174  Clark  Street. 

1882. 


This  Report  of  oiir  8 uh -Committee  hos  heen  considered 
in  detail  hy  the  whole  Coinmittee^  has  heen  referred  hack 
for   amendment   and   amjylijication,  and   in  its  j>f<^sent 
form  has  the  ajyprovcd  of  the  Committee^  and  is  recom- 
mended to  the  Execttti've  Committee  of  the  Citizens''  Asso- 
ciation for  ])uhlication. 

FREDERICK  BAUMANN, 
P.  B.  WIGHT, 
ED.  BURLING, 
J.  M.  W.  JONES, 
MARX  WINEMAN, 
GEO.  M.  HOW, 

January  28,  1882.  Committee  on  Public  Buildings. 


The  Citizens'  Association  feel  that  they  would  not  he 
doing  their  duty  to  the  puhlic  without  calling  especial 
attention  to  the  report  of  the  Committee  on  Theatres 
and  Puhlic  HalJs,  which  rejxjrt  shows  that  in  many 
cases  there  are  very  glaring  defects  in  construction^  and 
that  in  case  of  fire  or  'panic  in  many  of  these  places  of 
puhlic  resort  there  migJd  he  fearful  loss  of  life. 

A.  A.  CAKPENTEK,  President. 

HENRY  W.  KING,  Vice-Pres. 

MARSHALL   FIELD, 
R.  T.  CRANE, 
EDSON   KEITH, 
EDWIN   LEE   BROWN, 
MAX   A.  MEYER, 
MURRY  NELSON, 
MARK  KIMBALL, 
ALFRED  BISHOP  MASON, 
FRANCIS   B.  PEABODY, 
MARX   WINEMAN, 
February  1,  1882.  Executive  Cominittee. 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE 


ON 


THEATRES  AND  PUBLIC  HALLS. 


Your  Siib-Committee,  by  resolution  of  the  whole  Com- 
mittee, of  Jan.  27,  ISSl,"^  assisted  by  Mr.  L.  D.  Cleaveland, 
formerly  Superintendent  of  Buildings  under  Mayor  Heath, 
to  whom  was  referred  the  matter  of  examining  the  present 
state  of  theatre  and  halls  in  this  city,  beg  leave  to  report  as 
follows: 

OflScial  report  was  made  on  this  subject  by  Mr.  Cleave- 
land to  Mayor  Heath  some  three  years  ago,  and  published 
in  the  daily  papers.  This  report  first  treated  of  what  ought 
to  be,  and  then  entered  into  a  detailed  description  of  the 
different  theatres  as  they  were  at  that  time,  and  suggested 
improvements  urgently  necessary  for  the  safety  of  a  crowded 
audience.  Subsequently  an  ordinance  was  passed  requiring 
new  theatres  to  be  built  in  accordance  with  some  definite 
rules,  and  that  present  theatres  should  be  changed,  particu- 
larly in  regard  to  egress. 

Several  new  theatres  have  been  built  since  the  passage  of 
this  ordinance,  two  have  been  materiallj' reconstructed,  and 
a  large  majority  of  the  existing  ones  have  been  to  some  ex- 
tent improved;  but  the  ordinance  has  in  no  case  been  very 

♦Note.— This  resolution  was  as  follows:  Resolved,  1,  That  the  report  of  L.  D. 
Cleaveland,  Superintendent  of  Buildings,  to  the  Maj'or,  under  the  Heath  administra- 
tion, be  printed,  with  such  omis.sions  as  Mr.  Cleaveland  may  suggest. 

2.  That  followint];  the  report  of  Mr.  Cleaveland,  the  Theatre  Ordinance,  passed 
June  14,  1878,  be  printed. 

3.  That  Mr.  Cleavoland  be  requested  to  act  in  conjunction  with  asub-comniittee  of 
this  committee,  in  preparing  a  report  which  shall  stale  what  has  been  done  since 
the  passage  of  this  ordinance  towards  the  improvement  of  the  condition  of  theatres 
then  existing:  and  in  the  erection  of  new  theatres  and  public  halls,  with  special 
reference  to  the  provisions  of  the  ordinance. 


strictly  observed,  and  the  public  interest  demands  that  its 
operations  should  be  carefully  scrutinized,  to  the  end  that 
it  may  be  rigidly  enforced,  if  sufficient  for  the  purpose,  or 
made  more  effectual  by  further  legislation. 

The  following  is  a  repetition  of  the  report  of  Mr.  Cleave- 
land,  made  three  years  ago,  with  remarks  and  continuation 
offered  by  your  Committee: 

The  Hon.  Monroe  Heath,  Mayor  op  the  City  of  Chicago: 

Sir — lu  accordance  with  your  request  to  employ  such  assistance  as 
was  required,  and  malie  a  survey  of  the  theatres,  public  halls,  churches, 
schools,  &c.,  of  the  city,  I  engaged  Mr.  James  R.  Willett  as  a  special 
assistant  for  that  purpose,  and  proceeded  to  comply  with  your  desires, 
by  carefuly  examining  the  theatres  and  making  plans  thereof  to  be 
kept  in  tlie  department  for  reference,  upon  which  are  marked  such 
changes  as  are  thought  necessary  for  the  safety  and  protection  of  the 
public. 

As  it  will  take  several  weeks  to  complete  the  survey  and  examination 
of  all  the  buildings,  it  is  thought  best  to  report  on  each  class  of  build- 
ings as  soon  as  the  survey  is  made.  I  herewith  enclose  my  report  on 
theatres : 

GALLERIES. 

The  means  of  egress  from  the  main  floors  of  some  of  the  theatres  are 
sufficient,  but  that  is  not  the  case  with  the  galleries  in  any  of  them. 
They  have  their  exits  exclusively  in  the  front  part  of  the  buildings,  and 
a  fire  there  would  endanger  the  safety  of  the  occupants  of  the  galleries. 
There  should  also  be  stairways  from  the  galleries  near  to  the  pros- 
cenium, where  the  stage  boxes  are  usually  placed,  and  they  should  be 
of  sufficient  size. 

The  exits  for  the  ditterent  galleries  should  be  separate. 

The  main  floor  should  be  provided  with  exits,  so  that  an  audience 
there  could  readily  escape  without  meeting  the  stream  of  people  from 
the  galleries. 

In  case  of  a  panic,  the  people  in  the  galleries  are  in  the  most  danger, 
being  further  from  the  ground,  and  they  should  not  be  delayed  by  meet- 
ing other  streams  of  people  from  the  main  floor. 

Handrails  should  be  placed  on  both  sides  of  all  halls,  stairways,  pas- 
sages, &c.,  so  that  people  may  iiave  something  to  hold  on  to  and  enable 
them  to  resist  pressure  that  tends  to  overthrow  tlunn. 

Where  possible  to  avoid  it,  there  should  be  no  steps  in  aisles  and 
passages.  If  the  rise  does  not  exceed  one  foot  in  ten  feet,  it  would  be 
better  to  have  the  floors  laid  on  an  incline. 


There  should  be  uo  hjng  flights  of  straight  stairs,  but  the  stairs  should 
have  many  landings  and  change  direction  at  each  landing,  and  in  no 
case  should  circular  stairs  be  used.  The  object  of  this  is  to  prevent  the 
enormous  pressure  which  arises  where  the  stairs  are  long  and  straight. 
Some  of  the  present  flights  of  stairs  are  longer  then  is  desirable.  All 
doors  leading  out  of  the  house  should  open  outwards,  and  be  so  fas- 
tened as  to  be  readily  opened  from  the  inside,  and  not  so  strong  as  lo 
resist  pressure  from  the  inside. 

Over  all  places  of  exit,  especially  those  most  generally  used  as 
entrances,  the  word  "  Exit"  should  be  painted  in  large  letters.  The 
more  separate  and  distinct  the  exits  from  the  building  are  the  more 
security  there  will  be  for  the  audience  in  case  of  fire.  People  in 
a  panic,  whether  from  a  real  or  imaginary  cause,  have  no  judgment, 
and  should  be  provided  with  ample  safe-guards,  protection  and  exits, 
when  such  occurrences  happen. 

The  theatre  that  can  show  the  greatest  amount  of  security  will  (other 
things  being  equal)  meet  with  the  most  liberal  patronage  for  at  least 
mouths,  and  perhaps  years,  after  such  a  calamity  as  the  fire  in  Brooklyn. 
No  place  should  be  tolerated  for  large  assemblies  that  has  but  one  means 
of  exit,  no  matter  how  spacious  that  one  may  be,  for  a  fire  is  as  likely 
to  occur  there  as  in  any  other  part  of  the  building,  and  thus  cut  off  all 
means  of  escape.  This  will  apply  to  halls,  churches,  schools,  &c.,  as 
well  as  to  theatres. 

THE   PROSCENIUM   WALL, 

or  partitions  in  theatres  yet  to  be  erected,  should  be  a  brick  wall  run- 
ning through  and  above  the  roof.  In  those  now  erected,  which  are  all 
of  wood,  it  would  be  sufficient  if  they  be  covered  on  the  stage  side  with 
a  thick  coat  of  plaster  on  iron  lath,  slieet  iron,  or  in  some  other  suitable 
way  (acceptable  to  the  Superintendent  of  buildings)  and  made  less  liable 
to  ignite  when  fire  occurs  on  the  stage.  This  partition  should  run  up 
through  the  attic  to  the  roof,  and  also  up  to  the  floor  under  the  stage, 
and  all  openings  except  the  stage-opening  should  have  iron  doors.  The 
ceiling  under  the  auditorium  should  also  receive  a  coat  of  plaster  or 
iron,  similar  to  that  spoken  of  for  the  proscenium  partitions.  The 
use  of  wood,  such  as  is  called  "  ceiling  stuff,"  should  be  more  restricted 
than  it  is,  as  it  is  often  used  for  the  partitions  of  dressing-rooms  and 
other  permanent  partitions.  Such  partitions  should  at  least  be  "  stud  " 
partitions,  plastered  on  both  sides. 

The  space  over  the  auditorium  should  not  be  used  for  a  carpenter 
shop,  nor  for  the  storage  of  combustible  materials,  as  is  now  the  case 
in  some  of  the  theatres.  All  domes  should  be  plastered  on  both  sides 
so  that  the  wood-work  may  be  entirely  covered.  In  the  construction 
of  new  domes,  wood  should  not  be  allowed  in  any  pf)rtion  of  them,  as 
there  is  a  great  deal  of  heat  generated  in  them  by  the  gas  from  the 


cliandeliers  -wbicli  usually  hang  there.  This  heat  should  not  be 
allowed  to  escape  into  the  attic,  but  should  be  taken  out  through  the 
roof  by  a  flue  constructed  similarly  as  domes. 

THE   DUOP-CURTAINS 

of  all  theatres  could  and  should  be  made  of  wire-cloth  coated  with  fire- 
proof material,  such  as  is  now  used  for  coating  scenery.  A  curtain 
so  constructed  would  keep  back  fire  and  smoke  from  the  auditorium 
for  a  considerable  time — probably  long  enough  to  enable  an  audience 
to  escape  from  the  building  before  a  fire  originating  on  the  stage  could 
communicate  with  the  auditorium.  All  lights  on  or  about  the  stage, 
including  fly-galleries,  rigging-loft,  &c.,  should  be  protected  by  wire 
netting  placed  at  least  six  inches  away  from  the  burner.  Border  or 
hanging-lights  should  be  covered  with  metal,  in  addition  to  having 
wire  netting  around  them.  There  should  be  a  large  ventilator  over 
the  rigging-loft,  with  valves  that  could  be  readily  thrown  open  by  a 
person  on  the  stage,  or  in  the  fly-gallery,  in  case  of  a  fire  on  or  about 
the  stage.  This  would  form  an  exit  for  smoke,  and  tend  to  create  a 
current  of  air  from  the  auditorium  to  the  back  of  the  building,  in  place 
of  a  draft  towards  the  front,  as  is  now  the  case  when  the  curtain  is  up. 
All  useless  and  inflammable  material  should  be  removed  entirely  from 
the  building,  in  place  of  being  stored  in  every  out-of-the-way  place, 
nook  and  corner,  as  is  now  the  case  in  some  of  the  theatres.  The 
theatres  should  be  provided  with  a  stand-pipe  and  hose,  and  these 
should  be  placed  so  as  to  be  readily  seen,  and  not  hidden  or  covered  up 
in  any  way.  There  should  also  be  an  ample  supply  of  fire-extinguishers, 
all  in  full  view;  indeed,  it  would  be  well,  at  least  about  the  stage,  fly- 
galleries,  &c.,  to  have  a  number  of  buckets  always  kept  full  of  water 
ready  to  throw  on  the  fire  at  its  commencement.  The  bucket  of  water 
has  this  advantage: — everyone  knows  how  to  use  it,  and  it  is  ready  for 
instant  use.  The  difficulty  with  stand-pipes  is  that  they  require  a 
pump  or  some  means  of  forcing  the  water  through  them,  and  could  not 
be  used  until  the  fire  engines  arrived,  vv^hich  in  all  probability  would 
be  some  time  after  the  fire  had  broken  out.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to 
have  a  sufficient  number  oi  fire-extinguishers  and  buckets  of  water  on  the 
stage.  There  should  be  at  least  two  extinguishers  on  each  side  of  the 
stage,  one  on  each  side  of  the  fly-gallery  and  two  in  the  rigging-loft. 
There  should  be  at  least  two  experienced  and  reliable  men  to  have 
charge  of  all  appliances  for  the  extinguishing  of  fires.  They  should 
be  assigned  to  this  as  their  especial  duty,  and  held  responsible  for  the 
efficiency  of  the  fire  apparatus.  Theatres  should  be  licensed  to  con- 
tain the  proper  number  of  persons,  and  no  more  should  be  admitted. 
The  passages  should  never  be  blocked  up  by  chairs  or  stools,  nor  even 
by  persons  standing,  as  the  passages  are  calculated  to  give  egress  to 
the  numbers  of  persons  who  can  be  seated,  and  not  to  the  number  of 
persons  that  can  be  i)acked  standing  in  the  passages.    Although  some 


of  the  passages  are  not  as  wide  as  they  should  be,  they  will  be  sufficient 
if  the  additional  exits  proposed  are  made.  There  are  no  objections  to 
allowing  theatres  to  have  in  them  a  greater  number  of  persons  than 
can  be  seated,  provided  the  exits  are  calculated  for  all  that  are  allowed 
to  enter;  but  generally  all  the  seats  that  can  be  gotten  in  are  put  in, 
and  the  exits  are  often  insufficient  for  that  number.  From  statistics 
of  the  theatres  of  New  York,  it  appears  that  out  of  nineteen  theatres 
the  number  of  persons  admitted  over  the  number  that  could  be  seated 
varied  from  twenty-five  to  ninety-two  per  cent,  above  the  seating  capa- 
city. Tlie  average  excess  being  fifty-eight  per  cent.  From  this  it  is 
evident  that  provisions  for  the  safety  of  this  excess  should  be  made. 
A  sufficient  number  of  oil  lamps  or  candles  should  be  put  up  and 
lighted  every  evening,  so  that  if  the  gas  was  turned  oft"  or  went  (mt, 
the  building  would  not  be  left  in  total  darkness.  The  heating-apparatus 
should  be  thoroughly  protected;  where  near  the  wood-work,  it  should 
be  separated  therefrom  by  brick  or  plaster,  or  iron  lath.  In  some  of 
the  theatres  the  protection  is  not  what  it  should  be.  The  hearth,  for  a 
distance  of  five  feet  at  least,  should  be  on  brick  or  stone.  Metal  smoke- 
flues,  if  they  come  within  three  feet  of  wood,  should  be  separated  there- 
from by  plaster  or  brick,  as  before  mentioned,  or  by  a  metal  covering 
two  feet  broader  than  the  pipe  and  six  inches  from  it  and  from  the 
the  woodwork. 

It  would  be  well,  though  not  perhaps  necessary,  if  each  theatre  was 
furnished  with  an  automatic  fire  alarm  connected  with  the  Fire  Depart- 
ment, and  having  a  sufficient  number  of  stations  or  bulbs  through  the 
building.  This  would  give  an  early  and  prompt  alarm  when  any  part 
of  the  building  became  dangerously  hot,  even  before  a  fire  occurred. 
It  is  due  to  the  managers,  owners,  &c.,  whom  I  have  met,  to  say,  that 
they  have  been  courteous  and  have  generally  expressed  a  desire  to  im- 
prove their  buildings  so  as  to  make  them  thoroughly  safe. 

CHICAGO   THEATRES, 

or  some  of  them,  are  not  inferior  to  those  of  other  cities.  They  can  all 
be  made  reasonably  secure  and  some  of  them  could  be  made  very  near 
perfect  by  a  judicious  though  not  extravagant  expenditure  of.money. 

When  the  changes  proposdd  are  made  and  the  law  complied  with,  it 
will  give  the  department  great  pleasure  to  make  that  fact  known  to  the 
public.  If  the  suggestions  herein  made  are  carried  out,  the  Chicago 
theatres  may  be  considered  as  complying  with  all  reasonable  require- 
ments of  safety.  I  herewith  submit  my  report  and  plans  for  changes 
necessary  to  be  made  in  the  different  theatres. 

Very  respectfully  submitted, 

L.  D.  CLEAVELAND, 

Superintendent  of  Buildings. 


10 

MCVICKER'S   THEATRE. 

This  theatre  has  an  alley  on  each  side  and  one  in  the  rear.  There  are 
stores  and  offices  in  the  front  part  of  the  building.  The  entrance  is 
from  Madison  street  by  a  hallway  forty  feet  long  and  twenty-four  feet 
wide,  between  two  stores.  There  are  stairways  on  both  sides  of  this 
hallway  from  the  offices  over  the  stores,  which  reduce  the  size  of  the 
hallway  to  sixteen  feet.  There  is  also  a  ticket  office  in  the  hall,  by 
which  the  width  is  still  further  reduced  to  twelve  feet  net,  but  a  por- 
tion of  the  audience  could  get  out  through  doors  into  the  stores  on 
each  side  before  reaching  the  ticket  office,  and  thence  to  the  street. 
There  is  a  corridor  on  the  main  floor,  and  also  on  the  first  gallery  floor, 
running  across  the  front  of  the  auditorium.  There  is  a  door  at  each 
end  of  the  corridor  and  main  floor  opening  on  the  alley.  This  cor- 
ridor also  contains  two  stairways  to  the  galleries.  The  galleries  also 
have  doors  opening  into  the  halls  of  the  office  in  front,  which  halls 
have  stairways  leading  into  the  hallway  on  the  main  floor,  which 
hallway  constitutes  the  entrance  to  the  theatre.  There  are 
two  doors,  one  on  each  side,  opening  from  the  parquet  circle 
into  side  alleys.  There  are  two  galleries  above  the  main  floor.  The 
main  floor  is  about  four  feet  above  the  grade  of  the  alley.  There  should 
be  two  stairways  from  the  galleries  (one  from  each  side)  near  the  pro- 
sceniums,  the  most  suitable  place  for  said  stairs  being  now  occupied 
by  dressing-rooms.  These  stairs  should  not  communicate  with  the 
main  floor,  but  should  open  out  directly  on  the  side  alleys.  The  pres- 
ent doors  from  the  parquet  circle  to  the  side  alley  should  each  be 
widened  to  five  feet.  Other  doors  on  each  side  near  the  front  should 
be  opened.  The  doors  from  the  corridors  to  the  side  alleys  should  be 
reserved  for  the  occupants  of  the  galleries.  The  carpenter  sliop  is  in  the 
attic  over  the  auditorium.  This  theatre  possesses  an  electric  fire-alarm 
connected  with  the  fire  patrol  house.  There  are  five  fire  plugs  to  this 
theatre,  one  in  the  basement  under  the  stage,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  stage,  and  one  on  each  fly-gallery,  with  hose  attached  to  each. 
There  are  also  two  stand-pipes  with  fire-ladders  outside,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  building  extending  to  the  roof.  The  theatre  is  heated  by 
seven  furnaces,  located  as  shown  in  the  basement  plan.  There  are  fifty 
buckets  kept  filled  with  water  in  the  carpenter  shop  over  the  audi- 
torium. The  proscenium  partition  should  be  plastered  or  covered 
with  iron.  Generally  the  improvements  mentioned  under  the  heading 
of  "  Remarks ''  should  be  carried  out.  The  seating  capacity  of  the 
entire  building  is  1,700:  main  floor,  775;  first  gallery,  461;  second 
gallery,  464. 

Since  the  above  report  was  published,  the  ticket  office 
referred  to  has  been  removed  from  the  center  of  the  entrance 
hall  and  now  occupies  a  space  under  the  west  staircase,  to 
that  extent  remedying  the  defect  in  the  main  entrance  com- 


11 

plained  of;  another  objectionable  feature,  the  candy  mann- 
factory  in  the  front  basement,  observed  by  your  Com- 
mittee but  not  alluded  to  in  Mr.  Cleaveland's  report, 
has  been,  at  our  request,  partly  remedied,  but  is  still  ob- 
jectionable. We  would  suggest  that  the  other  recommend- 
ations in  that  report  with  regard  to  stairways,  etc.,  be  car- 
ried out,  and  that  as  an  additional  security,  there  shoidd  be 
outside  stairways  leading  from  the  galleries  to  the  alleys, 
w^ith  large  and  secure  balconies;  also,  as  the  house  is  well 
situated  for  the  purpose,  two  or  more  iron  tire  ladders  on 
each  side,  firmly  secured  to  the  walls ;  the  lower  side  egress 
doors  should  be  far  more  ample. 

We  consider  the  attic  the  best  place  for  the  carpenter 
shop,  in  ease  a  separate  building  cannot  be  provided,  for 
obvious  reasons — the  advantage  of  light  from  above  instead 
of  gas,  being  one.  The  expression — carpenter  shop,  in  this 
case,  conveys  a  wrong  impression;  there  is  but  one  bench, 
no  piles  of  lumber,  and  the  material  used  in  the  work  is 
planed  and  sized  at  the  mill,  merely  requiring  to  be  cut 
and  fitted  in  this  room,  with  very  few  shavings. 

The  furnaces  are  in  good  condition,  remote  from  wood 
work,  sufiiciently  so  for  safety, 

hooley's  theatre. 

"This  building  is  situated  in  tlie  rear  of  the  Fidelity  Safe  Depository- 
building.  The  only  exit  and  entrance  to  the  auditorium  is  by  means 
of  a  hall  seventy  feet  long  and  eighteen  feet  wide,  leading  in  from 
Randolph  street.  The  stairways  leading  from  the  galleries  ultimately 
lead  into  the  hall,  which  in  fact  reduces  the  width  to  thirteen  feet.  A 
projecting  box-office  still  further  reduces  it  to  ten  feet,  though  not  until 
the  stairway  from  the  liighest  gallery  is  passed.  There  is  an  alley  on 
the  west  side  of  the  auditorium,  and  also  one  in  rear  of  the  stage.  The 
main  floor  of  the  auditorium  is  about  seven  feet  above  the  grade  of  the 
alley.  The  only  stairways  from  the  galleries  are  in  the  front  part  of 
the  auditorium  and  in  the  entrance  hall.  The  paititions  of  dressing- 
rooms  are  of  icood  and  are  located  under  the  stage  and  auditorium. 
There  are  two  galleries  above  the  main  tloor.  77te  carpenter  shop  is 
over  the  auditorium.  The  defects  of  this  theatre  are :  it  has  but  one 
exit,  and  that  through  a  long  hall,  into  which  all  the  streams  of  people 
would  come ;  the  stairways  are  all  in  the  front  part  of  the  house.  There 
should  be  two  exits  into  the  side  alley  from  the  main  floor,  one  at  the 


12 

south  west  corner  of  the  auditorium  near  the  opening  into  the  entrance- 
hall,  and  another  near  the  proscenium,  together  with  the  necessary- 
steps  to  reach  the  side  alley.  There  should  be  a  stairway  from  the 
galleries  on  each  side  near  the  proscenium.  That  on  the  west  side  of 
the  house  should  open  on  the  side  allej\  The  other  one  might  open 
into  a  passage  to  be  made  under  the  stage  into  the  near  alley,  also 
into  the  parquet  circle.  The  front  stairs  to  the  basement  should  be 
closed  up  and  the  space  accorded  to  the  hallway.  In  a  panic,  persons 
would  be  likely  to  be  forced  over  the  railing  into  the  basement,  There 
should  be  another  entrance  from  the  rear  alley.  The  door  should  not 
open  into  any  other  room,  but  into  a  general  passage  waJ^  This  would 
increase  the  safety  of  the  actors,  but  not  that  of  the  audience. 
One  of  the  columns  which  carry  the  galleries  does  not  run  down 
to  the  ground,  but  is  carried  on  a  girder.  This  column  should  be  con- 
tinued down  and  rest  on  a  solid  masonry  foundation.  The  theatre  is 
heated  by  five  furnaces  and  three  stoves,  located  as  shown  in  the  plans. 
There  are  no  fire-plugs  in  the  building.  There  are  four  tire-extin- 
guishers: one  on  the  stage,  one  in  the  basement,  one  in  the  fly-gallery, 
and  one  into  the  auditorium.  There  are  seven  buckets  filled  with 
water  in  the  carpenter  shop.  The  seating  capacity  of  the  entire  build- 
ing isl,08(i:  main  floor,  489 ;  first  galler}',  297 ;  and  second  gallery, 
300.  The  proscenium  partition  should  be  covered  with  plaster  or  iron 
and  generally  the  improvements  above  mentioned  should  be  made." 

Recent  investigations  by  this  committee,  show  that  im- 
provements have  been  made  in  this  theatre,  b\^  adding  a  two- 
inch  fire  plug  on  eacli  side  of  the  stage,  and  a  large  ad- 
ditional exit  door  in  the  west  wall  leading  to  the  alley,  and 
an  iron  ventilator,  8  feet  in  diameter  and  40  feet  liigh,  over 
the  stage,  with  valve  connections,  which  can  be  worked 
either  from  the  prompter's  desk  or  in  front  of  the  audi- 
torium, both  above  and  below  the  auditorium  gallery; 
Should  fire  occur  on  or  above  the  stage,  the  effect  of  this 
ventilator  would  be  to  draw  the  flame  upward  and  create  a 
draft  toward  the  stage,  thus  giving  the  audience  time  to  dis- 
perse before  the  fire  could  come  forward  of  the  proscenium, 
which  has  been  lined  with  iron,  as  has  the  roof  over  the  rig- 
ging loft.  The  basement  stairs  have  been  removed  from 
the  main  entrance,  remedying  to  that  extent  the  objections 
noted,  and  the  stage  people  appear  to  be  drilled  as  to  their 
duties  in  case  of  fire  on  the  stage.  The  camp  stools  and 
moveable  seats  ought  to  be  immediately  sent  away  so  as 
to  avoid  the  temptation  of  using  them  in  case  of  a  crowded 


13 

honse.  A  serious  objection  noticed  here,  is  tlie  fact  that 
the  whole  space  below  the  house,  not  appropriated  for 
machinery  or  dressing  rooms,  is  used  for  the  storage  of 
what  is  called  "property" — even  the  space  below  the 
entrance  passage.  We  found  a  dangerous  furnace  under 
the  front  entrance  way  for  heating  the  box  office,  and  sug- 
gested the  use  of  a  gas  stove  in  its  place.  The  manager 
manifested  his  desire  to  meet  the  demand  of  your  Com- 
mittee, and  has  since  placed  a  gas  stove  in  the  office. 

THE    NEW    CHICAGO    THEATKE.       (kINGSBURY    BLOCK.) 
NOW   CALLED   THE   OLYMPIC. 

"This  building  has  buildings  adjoining  on  both  sides.  The  front  of 
the  auditorium  is  on  the  alley.  The  stage  is  on  a  small  enclosed  court 
six  and  one-fourth  feet  wide.  The  principal  entrance  to  the  auditorium 
is  through  a  hallway  eighty  feet  long  and  seventeen  feet  wide,  opening 
from  Clark  street.  This  hall  has  a  stairway  coming  down  from  offices 
over  the  same,  which  reduces  the  width  to  eleven  feet  eight  inches  in  the 
clear.  There  is  also  another  exit  in  the  front  portion  of  the  audi- 
torium by  means  of  a  stairway  in  the  north-east  corner  of  the  building 
leading  to  the  alley.  The  main  entrance  hall  leaves  the  auditorium 
about  the  centre  of  its  western  side.  There  are  two  stairways  from  the 
galleries,  both  leading  to  the  main  floor.  One  of  them  continues  down 
to  the  exit  on  the  alley  before  mentioned.  The  other  appears  to  have 
been  continued  down  at  one  time,  but  it  is  now  closed  up.  The  main 
floor  is  thirteen  feet  above  the  grade  of  the  alley,  but  its  average  height 
is  about  ten  feet  above  the  alley,  There  is  one  gallery  above  the  main 
floor.  The  stairs  (now  closed)  which  leads  to  the  alley  should  be 
opened,  and  another  exit  thus  formed.  There  should  be  made  an  exit 
from  the  stage  into  the  court  in  the  rear.  The  building  is  heated  by  hot 
water.  The  boiler  is  located  in  the  basement,  under  the  alley.  There  are 
no  extinguishers  in  the  building.  There  are  four  buckets  of  water  kept 
in  the  rigging-loft.  The  seating  capacity  of  the  entire  building  is  984: 
main  floor,  592;  gallery,  392.  Generally  the  improvements  mentioned 
in  my  report  should  be  made." 

No  improvements  were  found  to  have  been  made  in  this 
building,  except  that  an  automatic  lire  alarm  had  been 
placed  on  the  stage. 

MCCORMICK    HALL. 

This  hall  is  situated  on  the  north-east  corner  of  North  Clark 
and  Kinzie  streets.  It  has  a  main  floor  and  one  gallery.  The  main 
floor  of  the  hall  is  on  the  third  story  of  the  building;  the  first  story 


14 

being  occupied  by  stores  and  the  second  by  offices.  The  hall  is  detached 
on  three  of  its  sides,  having  North  Clark  street  on  its  front,  Kinzie 
street  on  the  south  and  an  alley  on  the  north  side.  The  rear  adjoins 
another  building.  There  is  a  stairway  on  each  side  of  the  main  floor 
of  the  hall  near  the  front — that  is,  near  the  north-west  and  south-west 
corner  of  the  hall — each  stairway  being  five  feet  nine  inches  wide,  and 
also  one  stairway  in  the  rear  at  the  south-east  corner  of  the  hall,  all  of 
which  lead  into  a  large  central  hall  in  the  second  story  of  the  building. 
From  this  hall  in  the  second  story  there  are  two  stairways  to  streets, 
one  in  front  seven  feet  eight  inches  wide  to  Clark  street,  and  one  in  the 
rear  nine  feet  six  inches  wide  to  Kinzie  street.  There  is  also  a  stair- 
way four  feet  wide  in  the  north-east  corner  of  the  building.  This  stair- 
way runs  down  and  opens  out  on  the  alley  on  the  nortli  side  of  the 
building.  It  does  not  communicate  directly  with  the  central  hall  on 
the  second  story.  There  are  three  stairways  from  the  gallery,  two  in 
front  near  the  north-west  and  south-west  corners  of  the  hall,  each  of 
these  being  four  feet  four  inches  wide,  and  another  near  the  south-east 
corner  four  feet  nine  inches  wide,  all  running  into  the  main  floor  of 
the  hall: — that  is,  people  coming  down  must  pass  into  the  main 
floor  of  the  auditorium  in  order  to  get  out  of  the  building.  There  is 
also  a  stairway  on  the  north-east  corner  three  feet  six  inches  wide;  this 
does  not  open  into  the  main  floor  of  the  auditorium,  but  communicates 
with  the  stairs  from  the  main  floor  before  spoken  of  in  the  same  corner 
of  the  building.  There  is  a  stand-pipe  on  the  side  allej'  on  the  north- 
east corner  of  the  building.  There  are  three  /rre-extinguishers  in  the 
building.  This  hall  will  seat  over  2,000  people,  and  is  heated  by 
steam. 

THE   DEFECTS 

of  this  hall  are  as  follows  :  First,  the  main  floor  is  high  above  the 
ground,  being  on  the  third  story  of  the  building;  second,  three  of  the 
stairways  do  not  run  directly,  separately  and  independently  to  the 
ground.  Any  fire  occurring  in  the  central  hall  or  in  the  offices  adjoin- 
ing the  second  story  might  fill  that  central  hall  with  smoke,  if  not  with 
flames,  and  block  all  the  three  stairways;  besides,  the  different  streams 
of  people  instead  of  being  kept  apart  and  lead  in  the  shortest  and  most 
direct  way  out  of  the  building,  are  all  thrown  together,  the  stairs  in 
the  south-east  corner,  although  wide  ones,  being  made  as  tortuous  and 
confusing  as  possible.  The  stairs  in  the  north-west  corner  of  the  build- 
ing are  inclosed  in  brick  walls  and  are  by  far  the  best  designed  and 
arranged  of  all  stairwaj's,  but  they  are  the  smallest  of  all,  being  only 
four  feet  wide,  which  is  too  narrow,  besides  they  are  littered,  and  appear 
not  to  be  used  except  as  a  store-room  for  odds  and  ends.  The  stairway 
in  the  south-east  corner  should  be  arranged  in  a  similar  manner  to  that 
in  the  north-east  corner,  so  that  people  could  get  to  the  street  svithout 
going  into  the  central  hall  in  the  second  story,  althougli  it  miirht  com- 
municate with  the  hall  by  a  doorway  with  a  door  in  it  opening  both 


15 

ways.  That  portion  of  the  stairway  from  the  gallery  should  not  lead 
into  the  main  floor  of  the  hall.  This  stairway  is  a  wide  one,  and  should 
not  he  altered  so  as  to  make  it  less  than  eight  feet  wide.  Each  of  the 
front  stairways,  that  is,  those  near  the  front  end  of  the  building,  should 
be  made  at  least  six  feet  wide,  and  carried  down  directly,  separately 
and  independently  to  the  street.  If  this  is  not  deemed  practicable  nor 
proper,  then  the  Clark  street  stairs  should  be  made  at  least  twelve  feet 
wide  in  the  clear  from  the  second  floor  to  the  street.  If  the  above 
alterations  are  made,  tlie  stairs  in  the  north-east  corner,  though  too 
narrow,  might  answer,  but  it  would  1)e  much  better  if  they  were 
widened  to  at  least  six  feet. 

The  general  recommendations  about  lamps  or  candles,  flre-extin- 
guishing  apparatus,  &c.,  made  in  my  report  on  theatres  are  applicable 
here." 

The  recoininendations  here  made  were  nearly  all  of  them 
executed,  but  the  objectionable  feature  of  its  bein^  on  the 
third  floor  still  remains,  which  would  not  be  allowable  if 
constructed  under  the  present  law. 

FAR  WELL    HALL. 

This  building  is  situated  on  Arcade  Court.  The  first  story  is  about 
twelve  feet  above  the  grade,  and  is  divided  into  several  smaller  halls, 
which  open  out  on  some  of  the  three  alleys  or  courts  which  are  on  two 
sides  and  the  rear  of  the  building.  These  rooms  are  safe  and  call  for 
no  special  remarks,  The  main  floor  of  the  large  hall  is  on  the  second 
story  of  the  building.  The  entrance  is  by  means  of  a  hallway  (con- 
taining stairs  its  full  width)  which  is  eight  feet  two  inches  wide  in  its 
narrowest  part.  This  hallway  leads  into  the  main  hall  near  the  north- 
west corner.  There  is  a  stairway  at  the  south-west  corner  ten  feet  wide 
from  the  main  floor  to  the  ground  and  opening  on  Arcade  Court. 
There  is  a  stairway  on  the  south-east  corner  six  feet  five  inches  wide, 
from  the  main  floor  to  the  ground,  and  opening  on  Arcade  Court. 
There  is  one  gallery  above  the  main  floor.  The  following  are  the  out- 
lets from  the  gallery  opening  into  the  main  floor:  A  stairway  five  feet 
ten  inches  wide  in  the  north-west  corner;  a  stairway  six  feet  nine 
inches  wide  in  the  south-west  corner  over  the  stairs  to  the  ground  in 
the  same  corner;  two  stairways,  one  on  each  side  of  the  gallery,  each 
two  feet  six  inches  wide,  running  down  to  the  stage  or  platform  near 
the  north-east  and  south-east  corners  of  the  building.  There  is  no  fire- 
extinguishing  apparatus  visible.  The  main  floor  will  seat  1,028  per- 
sons, and  the  gallery  will  seat  736  persons.  The  hall  is  heated  by 
steam. 

The  following  alterations  should  be  made:  There  should  be  an  exit 
made  from  the  gallery  near  the  north-west  corner  of  the  building,  with 
a  door  not  less  than  five  feet  wide  opening  into  the  third  story  hallway 


16 

of  the  front  part  of  the  building.  There  should  be  a  stairway  in  the 
north-east  corner  of  the  building  from  the  ground  up,  not  less  than 
seven  feet  wide,  and  opening  on  the  alley.  The  stairway  should  be 
continued  up  to  the  gallery  five  feet  wide,  and  so  should  the  stairway 
in  the  south-east  corner.  If  these  stairs  are  not  continued  up,  then  the 
two  stairways  now  existing  from  the  gallery  to  the  platform  should  be 
made  five  feet  wide  and  the  winding  steps  omitted.  The  general  recom- 
mendations about  lamps  or  candles,  fire-extinguishing  apparatus,  &c., 
made  in  my  report  on  theatres,  are  applicable  to  this  and  all  other 
public  halls." 

The  changes  suggested  were  duly  made,  and  the  hall,  as 
far  as  exit  is  concerned,  is  in  a  good  condition.  The  Com- 
mittee found  fault  only  as  to  the  proper  support  of  the  back 
part  of  the  gallery  floor.  A  partition  had  been  taken  out 
requiring  posts  in  its  place.  The  agent  of  the  hall  was 
duly  notilied  of  the  case,  and  the  defect  will  be  remedied 
without  doubt. 

THE    HERSHEY    MUSIC    HALL. 

This  hall  is  in  the  rear  of  Nos.  S3  to  87  Madison  street.  The  main 
floor  is  on  the  second  story  of  the  building.  There  is  a  gallery  across 
the  east  end  with  a  stairway  to  the  main  floor.  There  is  an  alley  along 
the  north  side  and  an  inclosed  court  on  the  south  side  of  the  building. 
The  entrance  is  from  the  second  story  of  Crystal  Block,  by  a  hallway 
nine  feet  wide,  but  the  one  stairway  in  the  Crystal  Block  from  the 
second  story  to  Madison  street  is  but  five  feet  six  inches  wide.  There 
is  a  stairway  in  the  north-west  corner  of  the  hall  four  feet  wide  leading 
to  the  alIe3^  The  hall  is  heated  by  furnaces.  There  is  no  fire-extin- 
guishing apparatus  visible.  Another  stairway  at  least  four  feet  wide  to 
the  alley  from  the  north-east  corner  of  the  hall  is  desirable,  though  not 
essential." 

No  changes  have  been  made  to  this  hall. 

Here  follow  the  investigations  of  the  committee  since 
Mr.  Cleaveland's  report  was  made. 

Hamlin's  grand  opera  house 

On  Clark  street,  opposite  the  court  house.  This  house  was 
reconstructed  on  the  site  of  the  former  "  Coliseum,"  and 
opened  in  the  autumn  of  1880.  It  was  re-built,  except  as 
to  the  proscenium  wall  and  the  stage  ventilator,  In  accord- 


17 

aiice  with  the  theatre  ordinance,  and  is  nndonbtedly  one 
of  the  safest  houses  thus  far  observed  in  the  city.  A  hirge 
ventihitor  is  placed  through  the  roof  to  discharge  the  foul 
air  from  the  auditorium.  The  space  beneath  the  floor 
is  kept  neat  and  clean.  A  carpenter's  bench  is  ])laced 
on  the  attic  floor  over  the  auditorium,  which  is  by  all 
means  a  better  place  for  the  same  than  would  be  the 
basement,  where  gaslight  must  be  burned  to  afford  light 
for  working,  as  already  explained,  in  McYicker's  building. 

CENTRAL    MUSIC    HALL 

on  the  corner  of  State  and  Randolph  streets.  This  build- 
ing was  entirely  erected  after  the  passage  of  the  theatre 
ordinance,  and  has  every  provision  for  exit  and  general  safety 
therein  required.  As  an  unusual  and  very  commendable 
safeguard,  the  floor  of  the  great  liall  is  plastered  on  its 
underside,  as  the  ordinance  requires.  The  space  below  is 
kept  neat  and  clean. 

ACADEMY    OF    MUSIC 

on  Halsted  street,  south  of  Madison.  This  building  was 
severely  damaged  by  fire  in  October  1880,  and  has  been 
since  reconstructed.  Its  egress  facilities  are  good  from  the 
front  of  the  house,  but  there  are  no  side  exits;  the  loft  over 
the  audience  room  is  kept  vacant  and  in  good  order.  The 
space  beneath  the  floor  is  also  kept  very  orderly,  neat  and 
clean,  though  not  plastered  on  the  underside  as  required  by 
the  ordinance.  The  carpenter  shop  and  the  property  room 
are  both  within  adjoining  buildings,  w4th  openings  from 
the  stage,  which  openings  are  provided  with  iron  doors. 
We  cannot  speak  too  highly  of  tliis  plan  of  keeping  the 
workshops  clear  of  the  audience  building. 

haverly's  new  theatre. 

on  Monroe  street  near  Dearborn.  Parquette  and  dress 
circle,  with  640  seats,  are  on  flrst  floor.  Balcony  circle  has 
600  seats,  and  upper  gallery  about  800.     In  all  2,040  seats; 

2 


18 

but  it  is  claimed  that  the  house  will  hold  2,800.  A 
spacious  opening  leads  to  the  parquette  and  dress  circle, 
whence  one  stairway  on  each  side  leads  to  the  balcony  circle. 
The  gallery  is  reached  from  the  street  by  two  staircases,  each 
about  six  feet  wide.  Increased  facilities  for  egress  are  in- 
tended to  be  afforded  by  two  extra  folding  doors  leading  from 
the  gallery  into  the  uj»per  hallway,  and  one  such  opening  from 
the  balcony  circle.  On  the  first  fioor  there  are  likewise  addi- 
tional openings  leading  through  the  front  part  of  the  build- 
ing, but  these  are  embarrassed  by  the  shops  in  front.  There 
is  evidently  as  much  egress  opening  provided  as  circum- 
stances permit,  unless  the  stores  are  removed;  yet  whether 
even  this  would  be  sufficient  in  case  of  panic  is  a  matter 
of  serious  doubt,  particularly  so  when  the  narrow  aisles 
and  spaces  are  crowded,  as  they  would  be  to  accommodate 
the  2,800,  which  under  no  circumstances  should  be  allowed 
to  enter  this  building.  Tiiere  is,  as  the  ordinance  provides, 
a  brick  proscenium  wall;  but,  contrarj^,  to  the  ordinance, 
there  are  no  iron  doors  covering  the  openings  from  the 
auditorium  to  the  stage,  and  the  brick  wall  is  omitted  over 
the  proscenium  opening,  there  being  a  mere  partition 
plastered  upon  wire,  and  this  only  on  one  side.  The  stairs 
are  without  the  hand-rails  on  side  walls,  which  are  required 
by  See.  3,  and  the  balcony  has  no  separate  exit  on  the  street 
as  ordained  in  Sec.  4.  (It  must  be  remembered  that  the 
great  loss  in  the  Brooklyn  Theatre  was  owing  to  defective 
arrangements  such  as  those  just  described.)  The  entire 
space  below  the  stage  and  auditorium  is  taken  up  with 
dressing:  rooms  and  such  other  conveniences  as  are  usual  in 
theatres,  and  the  partitions  are  simply  jpiiie  hoards. 
There  are  l)oard  partitions  everywhere,  and  no  plastering 
against  the  ceiling,  except  over  the  boiler,  which  has  its 
place  under  one  side  of  the  stage,  but  is  not  inclosed  with 
brick  walls  as  it  should  be;  this  boiler  supplies  steam  for 
heating  the  house.  (Sections  1,119  and  1,120  of  the  revised 
ordinances  require  all  partitions  and  ceilings  to  be  fully 
protected  by  plaster.)  The  gas  meter  is  properly  located 
under  the  front  part  of  the  building,  remote  from  the  stage. 


19 

In  this  theatre  the  only  means  of  discharging  the  audience 
is  in  front,  and  it  is  so  circumscribed  by  stores,  shops,  or 
offices,  tliat  the  space  is  entirely  insufficient.  The  aisles 
are  few  and  narrow,  inadequate  for  the  requirements  of 
the  number  of  seats,  which  are  placed  so  close  together, 
that  it  appears  as  if  a  densely  packed  house  was  the  only 
idea  that  governed  the  constructor. 

CRITERION    THEATRE. 

on  Sedgwick  street  near  Division.  Parquette,  with  dress 
circle  on  lower  floor,  has  about  450  seats,  and  balcony  has 
about  300,  making  in  all  750.  The  house  presents 
no  difficulty  at  all  as  to  ingress  or  egress  of  the  audi- 
ence. The  extent  of  frontage  is  ample;  the  house  is  neither 
too  high  nor  too  deep.  Between  the  stage  and  the  audience 
room  there  is  a  similar  show  of  a  "  fireproof"  separation,  as 
was  observed  in  Haverly's,  but  as  in  that  case  not  covering 
the  requirements  of  the  ordinance.  The  basement  room  is 
divided  up  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  stage.  Most 
of  the  dressing  rooms  are  under  the  stage.  Partitions 
between  them  are  all  of  boards,  and  the  ceilings  are  not 
plastered.  Partitions  have  been  cut  out  so  that  one  stove 
can  be  placed  in  the  hole  thus  made  to  heat  two  rooms  at  once. 
The  stage  and  auditorium  have  each,  respectively,  a  large 
iron  furnace  covered  with. brick  and  otherwise  well  protected. 
There  were  found  a  number  of  minor  transgressions  of  the 
building  ordinance,  in  addition  to  those  noticed,  which 
were  promised  speedy  correction. 


*In  concluding,  the  Committee  beg  leave  to  remark,  that 
the  investigation  of  theatres,  etc.,  instituted  at  the  time  by 
Mayor  Heath,  and  the  ordinances  soon  thereafter  enacted 
by  the  City  Council,  a  copy  of  which  is  herewith  annexed, 
have,  to  some  extent,  at  least,  born  good  fruits.  Theatres 
and  halls  are  now,  generally,  in  a  far  better  condition  than 

*  As  the  examination  of  those  Theatres  was  made  some  weeks  before  the  pub- 
lication of  this  report,  it  is  supposed  that  some  of  the  recommendations  given 
below  have  been  carried  out. 


20 

they  were  previous  to  the  enactment  of  tlie  ordinance;  and 
some  of  those  reconstructed  and  erected  since  then,  show 
a  decided  improvement.  Yet  the  law  has  nowhere  been 
fully  observed,  as  far  as  theatres  are  concerned,  and  if  it  had 
been,  the  pul)lic  good  would  not  be  sufficiently  conserved. 
Our  theatres,  even  the  best  of  them,  are  far  from  being  as 
secure  as  the  people  have  a  right  to  demand  they  should 
be,  and  your  committee  deem  it  their  duty  to  bring  to  your 
notice  the  most  glaring  of  those  deficiencies,  part  of  which 
are  not  reached  by  any  law,  to  wit: 

First. —  There  is  nowhere  a  fire  lyroof  separation  be- 
tween' the  stage  and  tlie  audltormrn.  There  should  be 
a  heavy  brick  wall,  extending  at  least  four  feet  above 
the  roof,  and  arched  over  the  main  opening.  This 
opening  ought  to  have  an  extra  iron  drop  curtain  so 
arranged  as  to  be  dropped  and  raised  readily,  and  it  should 
be  dropped  every  evening,  after  the  pertormance,  in  order 
that  it  ma}^  be  constantly  under  test.  The  means  for  dropping 
this  curtain  should  depend  on  a  mere  pawl  or  lever,  requiring 
but  an  instant  for  discharo^e. 

Second. —  x\ll  theaters,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  have 
merely  hoard  partitions  between  the  dressing  I'ooms,  and 
these  are  placed  under  the  stage,  and,  in  many  cases, 
under  the  auditorium.  The  underside  of  the  auditorium 
floors,  in  most  cases,  are  neither  deafened  nor  plastered. 
This  seems  to  be  a  palpable  transgression  of  Sec.  1119  and 
1120  of  the  revised  ordinance,  which  provides  as  follows; 

"1119.  All  auditorium  floors  in  theatres  shall  be  fire- 
proofed,  either  by  deafening  the  same  with  at  least  one  inch 
of  mortar,  or  having  the  underside  of  joist  lathed  with 
iron,  and  plastered  with  at  least  one  heavy  coat  of  mortar. 

"1120.  All  partitions  for  rooms  or  passages  in  theatres, 
if  not  made  bodily  fire-proof,  shall  be  plastered  on  both 
sides  on  iron  or  wire  lathi no'." 


21 

The  ordinances  should  further  distinctly  provide  that  all 
spaces  be  kept  clear  of  combustible  merchandise,  material  or 
rubbish;  far  less  should  any  parts  be  used,  as  they  sometimes 
are  for  hazardous  business. 

Third. — Gas  meters  are  frequently  located  under  the 
stage,  where,  in  case  of  fire,  they  are  subject  to  the  melting 
off  of  their  leaden  connection  pipes.  Tlie  proper  place  for 
meters  should  be  expressly  stated  in  the  ordinance,  and  there 
should  be  two  distinct  meters,  one  for  the  stage  and  the 
other  for  the  house,  and  no  connection  should  exist  between 
the  respective  pipes.  'These  meters  should  have  a  distinct 
fire-proof  encasement  with  iron  doors. 

Fourth. — There  is  everywhere  a  great  want  of  care  in  the 
placing  of  gas-burners  in  rooms,  at  places  under  the  stage 
and  auditorium.  In  very  many  cases  they  are  dangerously 
near  some  woodwork,  and  in  a  few  cases  they  are  moveable 
burners,  which  may  or  may  not  come  in  direct  contact 
with  the  board  partitions  hung  with  paper.  All  existing 
ordinances  are  silent  on  these  points.  It  is  necessary  to 
enact  one  which,  if  executed,  will  bring  about  these  necesary 
regulations,  not  only  for  theatres  but  for  all  other  buildings. 

Fifth. — The  Committee  has  nowhere  observed  the  placard 
or  tablet  provided  for  in  Sec.  919  of  the  Eevised  Ordinances, 
which  is  as  follows: 

"919.  The  owner  or  lessee  of  every  licensed  theatre, 
hall,  or  otiier  building,  shall  post  and  maintain  during  the 
period  of  his  license,  in  some  conspicuous  place,  near  the 
main  entrance,  a  printed  certificate,  properly  framed,  show- 
ine;  the  class  of  entertainments  for  which  said  theatre  or 
hall  is  licensed,  its  seating  capacity,  the  number  of  exits 
and  size  of  each,  and  the  number  of  aisles  in  each  circle, 
which  said  certificate  shall  be  signed  by  the  Fire  Marshal 
and  shall  also  state,  if  such  be  the  fact,  that  he  has  per- 
sonally examined  said  building,  and  considers  it  safe." 


22 

Sixth. — Neither  has  there  been  any  observance  of  Sec. 
1124  of  the  Revised  Ordinances,  which  provides  that  scenery 
shall  be  protected  by  incombustible  coating,  as  follows: 

"  1124.  All  materials  used  for  scenery  shall  be  coated 
with  such  paint,  washes,  etc.,  as  will  make  them,  as  far  as 
possible,  incombustible." 

Were  this  done,  it  is  believed  that  no  flame  would  arise. 
The  scenes  would  merely  be  charred. 

Seventh. — Every  theatre  should  be  provided  with  a  vent- 
ilating arrangement  over  the  stage  similar  to  that  intro- 
duced at  Hooley's  Theatre. 

Although  several  theatres  and  halls  have  been  erected 
since  the  passage  of  the  Theatre  Ordinance,  there  has  been 
no  regard  paid  to  the  essential  provisions  of  that  law,  except 
in  one  instance — the  Central  Music  Hall.  New  buildings 
not  having  open  spaces  on  either  side,  or  means  of  exit  at 
the  sta^e  end  of  the  galleries  and  auditorium,  have  been 
erected. 

We  cannot  lay  too  much  stress  on  the  enforcement  of  that 
part  of  the  law  which  prohibits  camp  chairs  and  other 
movable  obstructions  being  placed  in  the^  aisles,  or,  in  fact, 
anywhere  about  the  premises.  In  case  of  a  rush,  the  over- 
turning of  a  bench  or  settee  would  be  likely  to  bring 
about  a  terrible  disaster. 

Your  committee  have  not  failed  to  observe  that  the  Thea- 
tre Ordinance  has  been  repeatedly  violated,  and  set  at 
naught  in  the  erection  of  new  buildings  since  its  enact- 
ment; and  of  those  built  during  this  time  one  is  probably  the 
most  deficient  of  all  that  have  yet  been  erected,  in  its  want  of 
provisions  for  the  common  safety  of  the  audience.  Yet  the 
law  provides  that  no  such  building  can  be  erected  unless  a 
permit  has  been  granted  after  an  examination  of  the  plans 


.S3 

and  specifications  by  tlie  Commissioner  of  buildings.  If, 
therefore,  this  lias  been  done,  it  is  evident  that  the  depart- 
ment has  been  culpably  negligent  in  the  performance  of  its 
duty,  and  instead  of  interposing  its  authority  in  the  interest 
of  public  safety,  has  become  indirectly  responsible,  to  a 
great  extent,  for  the  present  condition  of  affairs. 

We  liave  been  unable  to  find  that  the  provisions  of  Sec- 
tion 1182,  requiring  that  the  owner,  agent,  lessee  or  occu- 
pant of  every  theatre  shall  employ  one  or  moi-e  competent 
firemen,  approved  by  the  Fire  Marshal,  during  perform- 
ances, has  in  any  instance  been  complied  with,  and  we  are 
not  aware  that  either  the  Fire  Marshal  or  Superintendent  of 
Police  has  ever  attempted  to  enforce  it.  And  for  such 
omission  they  are  equally  responsible  for  neglect  of  duty 
together  with  the  owners  or  lessees  of  our  theatres. 

These  are  onlv  cases  of  flaofvant  violation  given  as  illus- 
trations,  but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  every  pi^ovision  of  the 
existino-  law  is  habituallv  violated,  so  far  as  the  manage- 
ment  of  these  theatres  is  concerned,  with  regard  to  pro- 
vision against  the  danger  of  a  destructive  conflagration. 

While  existing  ordinances  as  to  theatres  should  be  duly 
revised  and  made  clearer  and  more  concise  in  form,  addi- 
tional ones  should  be  enacted  to  cover  the  points  first  noted. 
But  as  it  is  not  only  useless,  but  detrimental  and  perni- 
cious, to  put  laws  or  ordinances  on  the  Statute  Book  without 
any  adequate  means,  or  a  proper  officer  to  enforce  them, 
and  since  it  has  been  repeatedly  declared  to  be  impossible 
for  the  Superintendent  of  Buildings  to  expend  any  of  his 
already  overtaxed  time  upon  this  branch  of  public  business, 
it  is  evidently  desirable  that  there  be  an  officer  expressly 
appointed  whose  sole  duty  it  shall  be  to  enforce  the  ordi- 
nances bearing  upon  the  management  of  theatres  and  public 
halls.  Then  the  citizens,  and  particularly  the  Citizens' 
Association,  through  their  officers,  would  have  it  in  their 
power   to  watch  such  an   officer  and    hold  him  responsible 


24 

for  the  proper  enforcement  of  .the  ordinance,  while  at  the 
same  time  he  wonld  be  responsiltle  to  his  superior  officer. 
The  ordinances  can  unquestionably  be  enforced,  since  all 
theatres  and  public  halls  are  subject  to  a  license  which  can 
be  revoked  on  noncompliance  with  certain  conditions. 
What  is  wanted  to  make  these  amusement  places  reasonably 
secure  is  such  a  revision  of  the  theatre  ordinances,  as  will 
embrace  the  points  neglected  in  the  last  edition  of  the  city 
ordinances,  and  the  addition  of  such  amendments  as  will 
cover  the  deficiences  enumerated  above,  and  to  insist  upon 
the  appointment  of  a  properly  qualified  person  as  Theatre 
Inspector,  who  shall  be  a  member  of  the  police;  as  much  of 
the  police  force  as  may  be  needed  can  be  called  to  his  aid  in 
the  enforcement  of  the  law;  and,  when  necessary,  the  Mayor 
should,  on  his  recommendation,  suspend  the  licenses  of 
theatres,  the  proprietors  or  managers  of  which  refuse  to 
comply  with  its  provisions. 

All  of  which  is  respectfully  submitted. 

FRED.  BAUMANN, 

MARX  WINEMAN, 

Suh-Co7nrnittee. 

L.  I).  CLEAYELAND,  Assistant. 


THEATRE  ORDINANCE. 


THEATRE  ORDINANCE, 


PASSED    BY   THE 


CITY  COUNCIL  OF  THE  CITY  OF  CHICAGO, 

WITH  NOTES  OF  THE  DIFFERENCES   BETWEEN  THAT  LAW  AND  THE 

REVISED  ORDINANCES. 


Be  it  ordained  hythe  City  Council  of  the  City  of  Chicago^ 
as  follows : 

Section  1.  Every  theatre,  opera  house,  hall,  church  or 
other  building  intended  to  be  used  for  public  assemblages, 
shall  be  deemed  a  public  hall,  within  the  meaning  of  this 
ordinance. 

Sec.  2.  Any  person  desiring  a  permit  to  erect  any  pub- 
lic hall,  shall  make  application  to  the  Superintendent  of 
Buildings,  in  compliance  with  Section  58  of  the  building 
ordinance. 

Sec.  3.  No  stairway  to  any  public  hall  or  part  thereof, 
shall  rise  more  than  ten  feet  without  a  platform,  no  win- 
ders, wheeling  or  circular  steps  shall  be  used.  Each  stair- 
way and  passageway  shall  have  a  strong  hand  rail  on  each 
side  thereof,  through  its  entire  length. 

Sec.  4.  Every  public  hall,  with  accommodations  for  live 
hundred  or  more  people,  shall  have  at  least  two  seperate 
and  distinct  exits,  to  be  as  far  apart  as  may  be  found  prac- 
ticable. Public  halls,  accommodating  seven  hundred  or 
more  persons,  shall  have  at  least  tliree  seperate  and  distinct 
exits.  The  exits  from  all  galleries  to  be  independent  and 
separate  from  the  exits  of  the  main  floor. 


.28 

Sec.  5.  Every  public  hall  not  used  as  a  theatre  with 
accommodations  for  five  hundred  persons,  shall  have  no  por- 
tion of  the  main  floor  elevated  to  a  greater  height  than 
thirty-five  feet  above  the  street  grade.  Public  halls  with 
the  accommodation  for  one  thousand  persons  or  more,  shall 
have  the  main  floor  not  over  twenty-five  feet  above  the 
street  grade;  no  portion  of  the  main  floor  of  any  theatre, 
with  accommodations  for  five  hundred  or  more  persons, 
shall  be  more  than  ten  feet  above  the  street  grade. 

In  all  such  theatres  the  proscenium  wall  shall  be  of  brick 
work,  not  less  than  sixteen  inches  thick,  extending  fronj  the 
ground  through  and  four  feet  above  the  roof;  the  brick  wall 
to  extend  entirely  across  the  building,  from  the  floor  of  the 
stage  to  the  ground.  All  openings  required  in  any  part  of 
the  wall  (except  principal  opening),  shall  have  proper  iron 
doors. 

Sec.  6.  All  auditorium  floors  in  tiieatres  shall  be  flre- 
proofed,  either  b}'  deafening  the  same  with  at  least  one  inch 
of  mortar,  or  have  the  under  side  of  joist  lathed  with  iron, 
and  plastered  with  at  least  one  heavy  coat  of  mortar. 

All  partitions  for  rooms  or  passages  in  theatres,  if  not 
made  bodily  flre-proof,  shall  be  plastei'ed  on  both  sides  on 
iron  or  w4re  lathing. 


'&• 


The  preceding  sections  shall  apply  only  to  theatres  or 
public  halls  that  may  hereafter  be  erected.  The  following 
sections  shall  apply  to  theatres  or  public  halls  that  are  now 
or  may  hereafter  be  erected  or  constructed. 

Skc.  7.  All  egress  openings  in  public  halls  shall  have 
the  word  "exit"  conspicuouslj'  placed  over  them,  and  shall 
otherwise  conform  to  the  requirements  of  Section  39  of  the 
building  ordinance.  The  aisles  or  passages  in  such  halls 
shall  at  all  times  be  kept  unobstructed.  Cam]istools,  chairs 
or  other  seats  shall  in  no  case  be  placed  in  such  aisles  or 
passages. 


29 

Sec.  8.  The  term  "  theatre "  shall,  for  all  purposes  of 
this  ordinance,  include  all  public  halls,  containing  moveable 
scenery  or  fixed  scenery,  which  is  not  made  of  metal,  2)laster 
or  other  incombustible  material. 

All  materials  used  for  scenery,  shall  be  coated  with  such 
paint,  washes,  &c.,  as  will  make  it,  as  far  as  possible,  in- 
combustible. 

Sec.  9.  All  theatres  or  other  places  of  public  amusement 
having  a  seating  capacity  of  over  five  hundred  persons,  hav- 
ing a  platform  or  stage,  and  which  use  drop  curtains  or 
shifting  scenery,  shall  have  a  suitable  ventilator  placed  upon 
the  roof,  and  opening  to  the  space  above  the  stage.  Such 
ventilator  to  be  arranged  with  valves  or  shutters  that  can 
be  readily  opened  in  case  of  fire,  so  that  the  current  of  air 
will  pass  over  the  stage  and  outward  through  such  ventila- 
tor. Any  other  contrivance  having  the  same  effect  and 
approved  by  the  Superintendent  of  Buildings,  may  be  used 
instead  of  the  ventilator  above  described.  All  such  build- 
ings to  have  a  water-stand  pipe  and  water  plug  to  be  placed 
in  or  on  the  stage  or  platform,  or  in  its  immediate  vicinity, 
which  shall  be  connected  with  the  water  pipes  of  street 
mains  of  the  city,  and  shall  be  put  in  under  the  direction  of 
the  Fire  Marshal  or  Superintendent  of  Buildings,  and  to 
their  satisfaction.  Ilose  shall  be  attached  to  such  stand- 
pipe,  of  such  size  as  may  be  directed  by  said  Marshal,  to 
have  nozzle  and  stop-cock  attached  thereto;  such  hose  shall 
be  of  suflicient  leno-th  to  extend  to  the  farthest  limits  of 
such  building  or  place  of  amusement,  and  shall  at  all  times 
be  kept  in  good  order  and  repair,  tilled  with  water  under 
pressure,  and  ready  for  immediate  use. 

Sec.  10.  All  public  halls  with  accommodations  for  one 
thousand  or  more  persons,  shall  have  at  least  one  stand- 
pipe  in  the  street  or  alley  on  the  outside  of  the  building, 
from  ground  to  roof,  with  hose  attachments  close  to  a  win- 
dow or  door  at  each  floor  or  gallery.  Such  hall  shall  also 
be  provided  with  a  fire  alarm  telegraph  apparatus,  connected 


30 

by  the  necessary  wires,  with  the  lieadquarters  of  the  city 
fire  alarm  telegraph,  or  such  other  place  or  places  as  the 
Fire  Marshal  shall  direct.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  all 
owners,  agents,  lessees  and  occupants  of  such  public  hall,  to 
provide  such  lire  extinguishing  apparatus  at  such  points 
about  the  building  as  the  Fire  Marshal  shall  direct. 

Sec.  11.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  tlie  owner,  agent,  lessee 
or  occupant  of  any  theatre  with  accommodations  for  one 
thousand  or  more  persons,  to  employ  one  or  more  com- 
petent, experienced  tiremen,  approved  by  the  Fire  Marshal, 
to  be  on  duty  at  such  theatre  during  the  whole  time  it  is 
open  to  the  ])ublic;  such  fireman  shall  report  to  and  be  sub- 
ject to  the  orders  of  the  Fire  Marshal,  shall  be  in  uniform 
and  shall  see  that  all  fire  apparatus  required  is  in  its  proper 
place,  and  in  efficient  and  ready  working  order. 

Sec.  12.  The  license  for  each  public  hall  shall  state  the 
number  of  persons  it  has  accommodations  for,  and  no  more 
than  that  number  shall  be  allowed  to  enter  such  hall  at  any 
one  time. 

This  number  shall  be  governed  by  the  number  of  feet  of 
exit  of  the  doors  and  passages,  and  shall  be  approved  by  the 
Superintendent  of  Buildings. 

Sec.  13.  The  Superintendent  of  Buildings,  or  the  Fire 
Marshal,  shall  have  the  right  to  enter  any  public  hall  and 
all  parts  thereof  at  all  reasonable  times,  especially  when 
occupied  by  the  public,  in  order  to  properly  judge  of  and 
discharge  their  duties.  This  section  is  altogether  omitted 
in  the  lievised  Ordinances. 

Sec.  1-1.  Any  person  failing  to  comply  with,  or  guilty 
of  a  violation  of  any  provision  of  this  ordinance,  shall  be 
subject  to  a  fine  of  not  less  than  twenty-five  nor  more  than 
two  hundred  dollars.  Every  such  person  who  so  fails  to 
com]>ly  with,  or  is  guilty  of  a  violation  of  any  provision  of 
this  ordinance,  shall  be  deemed  to  have  been  guilty  of  a 
separate  offense  for  each  day  the  same  continues,  and  shall 


31 

be  subject. to  the  penalty  imposed  by  tliis  section.  This 
section  is  omitted  in  the  Revised  Ordinances^  but  the  fol- 
lowinoc  is  substituted: 

"  1140.  Any  person  who  shall  violate  any  of  the  pro- 
visions of  this  Article  (ix,  Page  253,  R.  O.),  where  no  other 
penalty  is  provided,  shall  be  subject  to  a  fine  of  not  less 
than  ten  dollars  nor  more  than  one  hundred  dollars  for  each 
and  every  offence.  Any  builder  or  contractor  who  shall 
construct,  and  architect  having  charge  of  same,  who  shall 
permit  to  be  constructed  any  building  in  violation  of  this 
Article,  shall  be  liable  to  the  penalties  provided  and  im- 
posed by  this  section." 

Sec.  15.  All  ordinances  and  parts  of  ordinances  incon- 
sistent with  the  provisions  of  this  ordinance  are  hereby 
repealed. 

Sec.  16.  This  ordinance  shall  take  effect  and  be  in  force 
from  and  after  its  passage  and  due  publication. 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE 


ON 


Theatres  and  Public  Halls 


OF  THE 


CITIZENS'  ASSOCIATION 


OF  CHICAGO. 


ROOMS.  .«  MERCHANTS'  BUILDING. 


OCTOBER,     I8S3. 


(•  1 U  ( '  A  ( ;  (> : 
The  Jno.  K.  .jF.riKRY  Prini-,  i.v.t  and  Hil  Deakbir?^  stkk, i:t, 

18K3. 


COMMITTEE  ON  THEATRES,  1882-83. 


p.   B.   WIGHT,    Chairman. 
AMOS  GRANNIS,  WILLIAM  E.   HALE, 

MARX  WINEMAN,  S.   D.   KIMBARK, 

C.  W.    DREW. 


EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE.  1883-84. 


JOHN  L.  THOMPSON,  President 
EDWIN  LEE  BROWN,    Vice-President. 
A.  A.   CARPENTER,  FRANCIS    B.   PEABODY, 

MARX  WINEMAN,  MAX  A.  MEYER, 

EDSON  KEITH,  ERSKINE  M.  PHELPS, 

M.  A.  RYERSON,  A.  W.  KINGSLAND, 

A.  F.   SEEBERGER,  R.  T.   CRANE, 

MARSHALL  FIELD,  J.  HARLEY  BRADLEY, 

GEO.  MILLS  ROGERS. 


GEO.  SCHNEIDER,  GEO.  MILLS  ROGERS, 

Treasurer.  Secretary. 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE 


-ON- 


Theatres  and  Public  Halls. 


The  last  formal  report  of  the  Committee  on  Theatres  and  Public 
Buildings  was  made  January  28,  1882.  It  was  approved  by  the  Execu- 
tive Committee  on  P'ebruary  i,  and  ordered  to  be  printed  ;  was 
extensively  circulated  and  attracted  widespread  attention.  At  the  last 
annual  meeting  it  was  referred  to  in  general  terms  by  the  Executive 
Committee,  who  stated  that  some  of  the  theatres  had  been  or  were 
being  improved  to  a  certain  extent  since  the  publication  of  the  report, 
but  that  others  (not  naming  them)  had  not  complied  with  any  of  the 
required  conditions  and  were  absolutely  unsafe.  For  omitting  to 
name  the  objectionable  ones  the  Executive  Committee  was  severely 
criticized  by  many  members  then  present,  who  demanded  to  know 
specifically  and  categorically  what  houses  were  unsafe.  The  Executive 
Committee  was  not  then  prepared  to  reply  to  the  question  ;  and, 
though  they  had  promised  that  a  further  report  of  the  Committee  on 
Theatres  would  shortly  appear,  and  the  printed  repart,  from  which  it 
could  be  plainly  inferred  which  were  the  objectionable  structures, 
was  before  the  Association,  it  was  ordered  that  a  special  meeting 
should  be  held  one  month  from  date,  at  which  the  Theatre  Committee 
was  directed  to  report  which  buildings  were  safe  and  which  unsafe. 

The  meeting  was  held  November  28,  and  the  Executive  Committee, 
who  had  been  furnished  with  all  the  minutes  and  memoranda  of  this 
committee  referring  to  the  subject,  asked  for  t'urther  time,  which  request 
was  granted.  The  resolution  of  instruction  was  also  amended  so  as 
to  require  a  statement  of  the  number  of  persons  which  each  building 
could  admit  with  safety,  as  compared  with  the  capacity  of  the  house. 

With  these  instructions  before  us,  we  beg  to  say  that,  while  we 
decline  to  give  categorical  answers,  and  thereby  assume  the  risk  of 
your  displeasure,  we  hold  that  all  the  desired  replies  may  be  infe- 
Tentially  drawn  from  our  reports.  In  these  we  have  not  hesitated  to 
mention  each  theatre  or  public  hall   by  name,  and    without  fear  or 


6 

favor.  Our  main  object — and  that  also  we  conceive  to  be  our  duty — is- 
to  ascertain  what  are  the  facts  with  regard  to  these  structures  and  their 
management,  and  to  make  them  public  so  far  as  the  publication  of 
reports  will  influence  the  correction  of  errors  and  abuses.  The  mere 
statement  of  opinions  emanating  from  this  committee  would,  in  every 
case  where  they  might  clash  with  opposing  interests,  be  met  by  oppos- 
ing opinions,  backed  by  a  fair  show  of  evidence,  whether  expert  or 
otherwise.  Even  an  estimate  of  the  number  of  persons  that  should  be 
allowed  to  each  building  would  be  a  matter  not  related  to  the  number 
of  seats,  but  would  be  controlled  by  such  diverse  circumstances,  involv- 
ing such  an  amount  of  examination,  measurement  and  calculation  as 
would  be  hardly  practicable  for  this  committee  to  undertake  without 
the  assistance  of  a  number  of  professional  experts,  and  the  consump- 
tion of  more  time  than  we  have  been  able  to  give  to  the  matter. 

It  is  also  questionable  with  us  as  to  whether  it  would  be  safe  to  say 
that  any  building  for  theatrical  or  amusement  purposes  could  be  so  built 
as  to  be  free  from  all  danger  to  the  audience  or  performers  in  case  of 
a  fire.  An  eminent  divine,  who  has  perhaps  had  more  experience 
with  vast  and  crowded  audiences  than  any  other  speaker  in  America, 
has  said  that  if  3,000  people  should  stand  in  an  open  field  and  a  panic 
be  created  among  them  some  might  trample  others  to  death.  It 
may  be  assumed  as  a  fact  that  no  building  can  be  constructed  so- 
carefully  that  a  panic-stricken  audience  may  get  out  with  safety  to  all' 
or  without  great  loss  of  life.  The  most  that  can  be  done  is  to  pro- 
vide such  resources  for  emptying  a  house  that  by  giving  audiences 
confidence  in  them  panics  themselves  may  be  prevented.  And  this 
brings  us  to  the  consideration  that  the  safety  of  audiences  in  theatres 
must  be  always  regarded  from  two  points  of  view.  First,  the  pre- 
vention of  fire,  which  is  the  general  cause  of  panics,  and  second,, 
the  proper  provision  for  escape  in  case  of  fire. 

It  is  useless  to  assume  that  the  former  can  be  prevented.  If  a 
theatre  were  built  and  finished  according  to  the  most  perfect  system- 
of  fire-proofing  that  has  been  invented,  the  very  nature  and  use  of 
the  appurtenances  employed  in  theatrical  representations  is  such  that 
there  is  always  a  certain  liability  to  alarms  of  fire  and  the  creation  of 
smoke  which  is  the  most  fruitful  cause  of  panics.  In  previous  reports 
we  have  shown  the  importance  of  cleanliness,  good  management, 
discipline  and  constant  watching  in  averting  the  danger^'of  fire.  And 
we  have  been  so  much  impressed  with  the  importance  of  this  that,, 
since  our  last  rei)ort  was  made,  we  have  passed  a  resolution  calling 
the  attention  of  managers  to  the  above  considerations  and  have  sent 
copies  to  all  of  them.  Sul«equent  inspections  have  shown  that  this, 
was  not  fruitless  of  good   results. 

The  use  of  gas  for  illumination  has  always  been  a  fruitful  cause  of 


theatre  disasters.  Being  convinced,  from  an  examination  by  members 
of  our  committee  of  the  system  of  lighting  by  incandescent  electric- 
ity used  in  every  part  of  the  Savoy  Theatre,  in  London,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  in  our  own  Academy  of  Music,  that  it  had  passed  the 
stage  of  pure  experiment,  and  had  entirely  averted  the  dangers  from 
the  use  of  gas,  we  addressed  a  circular  letter  to  the  proprietors  of 
all  the  theatres  in  this  city  requesting  them  to  adopt  this  system  of 
lighting.  Since  that  time  it  has  been  applied  with  entire  success  to 
our  largest  theatre,  Haverly's.  For  scenic  display  it  has  proved  to 
be  much  superior  to  gas,  and  for  that  reason  alone  will  doubtless  be 
in  time  more  extensively  adopted. 

The  prevention  of  fires  in  theatres  has  been  the  subject  of  so  much 
scientific  investigation  of  late,  and  there  is  so  much  literature  now  ex- 
tant on  the  subject,  that  it  seems  useless  for  us  to  express  our  views  of 
it  ia  greater  detail  than  we  have  done.  We  have  collected  much  of 
this  information  that  is  extremely  valuable,  and  take  this  occasion 
to  mention  some  publications  which  may  be  safely  referred  to  as 
standards  for  future  experience.  At  the  same  time  we  think  it  would 
be  wise  for  this  Association  to  republish  them  in  full,  or  in  condensed 
form,  for  circulation  among  the  owners,  lessees  and  managers  of 
places  of  public  amusement  in  our  city,  and  others  who  may  be  in- 
terested and  may  not  find  them  to  be  easily  accessible.  They  might 
be  sold  for  a  small  sum  by  the  news  agencies,  so  as  to  place  them 
within  the  reach  of  all. 

The  most  important  is  a  paper  by  C.  John  Hexamer,  read  before 
the  Franklin  Institute,  Philadelphia,  June  21,  1882.  It  was  printed 
in  the  ''Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute"  for  August,  1882,  and  re- 
printed in  pamphlet  form  by  J.  Spencer  Smith,  501  Chestnut  street, 
Philadelphia. 

At  the  stated  meeting  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  held  April  18, 
1883,  the  report  of  a  Special  Committee  on  the  Prevention  of  Fires 
in  Theatres  was  read  and  accepted.  Mr.  Hexamer  was  a  member 
of  that  committee.  The  report  was  prmted  in  the  "Journal  of  the 
Franklin  Institute,"  and  was  reprinted  in  the  "American  Architect 
and  Building  News"  of  June  9,  1883. 

A  report  of  a  committee  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  England,    upon 
exactly  the  same  subject,   was  made    during  the   early  part  of  the 
present  year.     It  was  published  in  the  ' '  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Arts, 
and  reprinted  in  the   "American  Architect  and  Building  News,"  June 
16,  1883. 

In  the  last  document  references  are  made  to  reports  by  select 
committees  to  the  same  society  in  1866,  1876  and  1877, 

There  is  also  in  print,  (printed  in  London  in  1882,  by  R.  Wilson 
&  Co.)  an  admirable  pamphlet  by  Capt.  Eyre  G.  Shaw,  Chief  of  the 


London  Fire  Brigrade,  on  the  "Prevention  of  Fire  in  Theatres," 
More  recently  Capt.  Shaw  has  made  special  reports  to  the  Metropoli- 
tan Board  of  Works  on  the  condition  of  all  the  theatres  in  London. 
These  were  never  printed  for  distribution,  but  Mr.  John  HoUingshead, 
Manager  of  the  Gaiety  Theatre,  taking  great  offense  at  the  strictures 
of  Capt.  Shaw,  employed  an  expert  to  write  a  reply  to  it,  printing  the 
report  and  strictures  upon  it  on  opposite  pages  throughout ;  we 
have  had  an  opportunity  to  read  the  report,  which  we  would  not  other- 
wise have  had.  The  Chairman  of  this  Committee  had  the  pleasure  of 
examining  this  building  shortly  after  the  report  was  printed,  and  can 
testify  to  the  truthfulness  of  Capt.  Shaw's  remarks.  A  copy  of  this 
pamphlet  is  in  possession  of  this  Committee. 

The  second  part  of  the  subject — provision  for  safety  after  fire 
occurs — is  one  over  which  we  have  endeavored  to  use  all  the  influence 
which  we  possess.  And  in  this  connection  we  may  add  that,  as  a 
Citizens'  Committee,  more  concerned  in  the  safety  of  audiences  and 
of  actors,  who  have  no  influence  or  control  in  matters  pertaining  to 
their  own  safety,  than  of  the  property  of  those  who  recklessly  expose 
It  to  loss,  we  do  not  propose  to  devote  our  attention  hereafter  to 
methods  of  fire  extinguishment.  That  is  a  matter  to  be  attended  to 
after  the  audience  are  dismissed.  Even  the  best  efforts  of  our  well- 
disciplined  Fire  Department  would  not  enable  them  to  extinguish  any 
theatre  fire  before  an  audience  could  become  panic-stricken,  and  the 
very  approach  and  presence  of  the  department  at  such  a  time  would 
be  likely  to  increase  the  excitement  of  such  an  occasion.  The  Fire 
Department  can  only  be  useful  in  saving  lives  by  their  own  bravery 
after  a  panic.  It  is  the  panic,  above  all  things,  that  must  be  feared,  and 
prevented  if  possible.  Almost  any  audience  in  this  city,  if  dismissed 
in  the  presence  of  a  fire  with  no  more  hurry  than  is  seen  any  night  after 
a  performance,  and  with  no  panic,  could  safely  pass  out  of  a  burning 
building.  We  have  repeatedly  timed  all  the  leading  theatres,  and  find 
that  nearly  all  can  be  emptied  in  three  and  a  half,  and  at  most  four, 
minutes.  And  yet  many  of  these  would  have  their  exits  choked  in 
case  of  panic.  It  will  not  do  to  assume  that  panics  will  not  occur  ; 
they  may  not  be  general,  but  partial.  There  are  always  some  cool 
heads  and  brave  hearts  who  will  endeavor  to  stem  the  mad  rush  to 
death.  Therefore,  to  assure  the  approximate  safety  of  an  audience  in 
case  of  fire  it  must  be  assumed  that  the  provisions  for  exit  are  sufficient 
to  provide  against  the  danger  of  a  partial  panic. 

The  comments  hereafter  to  follow  will  refer  only  to  a  few  of  the 
buildings  under  our  supervision.  Our  inclination  the  coming  year  is 
to  take  under  consideration  the  lower  grade  of  places  of  amusement,  the 
popular  theatres  and  tlie  larger  variety  halls.  We  must  not  neglect 
places  of  this  class,  for  those  who  patronize  them  have   no   represen- 


0 

tation  in  this  body,  and  we  have  a  manifest  duty  to  perform  for  those 
who  do  not  have  the  opportunity,  the  thoughtfulness,  or  perhaps  the 
disposition,  to  speak  for  themselves.  C)ur  notes  are  not  sufficient  to 
give  them  consideration,  just  now,  in  sufficient  detail.  It  may,  there- 
fore, look  like  selfishness  for  us  to  take  such  a  lively  interest  in  the 
places  patronized  by  ourselves,  our  Himilies  and  our  friends;  but  it 
cannot  be  helped  at  present. 

In  our  last  report  we  made  comments  upon  eleven  places  of  public 
amusement.  We  will  in  this  refer  to  only  a  few  of  them.  The  build- 
ing which  received  our  most  earnest  attention  in  the  last  report  was 

HAVERLV'S    THEATRE. 

It  had  then  been  opened  to  the  public  but  a  short  time.  Com- 
plaints and  suggestions  with  regard  to  it  had  been  poured  upon  us  by 
the  score.  The  upper  part  of  the  high  front  building,  with  its 
quantity  of  light  woodwork  extending  above  the  unfinished  walls,  had 
attracted  considerable  attention  during  its  hasty  erection.  The  build- 
ing was  in  many  respects  a  disappointment  to  the  public.  They  had 
been  led  to  expect  that  it  would  be  first-class  in  every  particular, 
especially  as  it  was  built  immediately  after  the  Brooklyn  Theatre  dis- 
aster, and  at  a  time  when  the  safety  of  the  theatre  going  public,  was 
the  all-absorbing  theme  of  the  day.  The  lot  was  badly  suited  to  the 
purpose,  being  too  narrow,  and  having  exposure  at  front  and  rear 
only.  It  is  but  justice  to  the  owner,  however,  to  say  that  he  had  pro- 
cured the  lease  of  a  lot  on  one  side  fronting  on  the  rear  alley,  and 
had  built  the  walls  with  provision  for  exits  on  the  west  side.  lUil 
owing  to  some  flaw  in  the  contract,  the  parties  owning  it  tried  to  take 
advantage  of  the  situation  by  making  exorbitant  demands  while  the 
building  was  in  progress.     He  failed  to  receive  a  valid  lease. 

Your  Committee  has  always  been  of  the  opinion  that  in  a  building 
thus  located  nothing  less  than  extraordinary  means  should  be  provided 
for  the  safety  of  the  audience,  and  they  felt  that  they  were  fully  justified 
in  insisting  upon  radical  improvements  in  this  case  more  than  in  any 
other.  Our  last  report  defined  the  defects  of  the  house  as  they  then 
existed,  clearly.  After  its  publication  the  owner  of  the  building  pro- 
tested against  the  strictures  of  the  Committee,  yet  offered  to  make 
such  improvements  as  might  be  suggested.  We  referred  him  to  our 
report  for  suggestions.  Nothing  was  done  that  year,  however,  except 
the  placing  of  additional  stand-pipes  and  ladders  at  the  back  of  the 
stage,  and  a  rearrangement  of  the  parquette  and  dress  circle  seats. 
The  latter  was  a  valuable  improvement.  While  there  had  originally 
been  but  two  aisles,  two  additional  ones  were  made,  one  against 
each  side  wall.  But  they  extended  only  to  the  private  box  entrances 
and  did  not  reach  the  parciuette.  All  the  rows  of  seats  were  placed 
further  apart,  adding  greatly  to  the  comfort  as  well  as  safety  of  the 
audience. 


10 

During  the  following  winter  the  owner  concluded  to  rearrange  all' 
the  dressing  rooms  under  the  stage  and  asked  our  approval  of  the  work 
after  it  had  been  commenced.  At  our  suggestion  he  put  the  improve- 
ments into  his  architect's  hands  for  execution,  and  an  entire  new  plan 
of  the  basement  story  was  made.  One  feature  of  the  plan  was  a  clear 
passage-way,  six  feet  wide,  on  each  side  of  the  basement,  from  front 
to  rear  of  building,  with  exits  at  both  ends.  These,  together  with  all 
dressing-room  partitions,  were  to  be  built  with  brick  walls.  The 
underground  passage-ways  were  to  afford  means  of  escape  for  the 
actors  from  the  basement  and  for  the  occupants  of  boxes  by  stairways 
leading  down  to  them.  The  improvement,  so  far  as  the  construc- 
tion of  new  dressing  rooms  in  place  of  the  old  board  affairs,  was 
subsequently  made.  The  underground  passage-way  on  one  side  has 
since  been  completed. 

The  newspaper  report  of  the  last  meeting  of  the  Association  was 
again  the  cause  of  directing  attention  to  this  building.  Once  more 
your  Committee  was  put  in  communication  with  the  architect  of  the 
theatre,  Mr.  Oscar  Cobb,  by  its  owner,  Mr.  J.  B.  Carson,  and  as  a  result 
made  a  formal  demand  in  writing  for  certain  definite  improvements  in 
the  interest  of  public  safety,  which  were  approved  and  recommended 
by  the  architect. 

The  following  were  the  resolutions  : 

"It  is  recommended  to  the  owner  of  Haverly's  Theatre  that  the 
following  improvements  be  made  : 

"  I  St.  The  central  exit  stairway  over  balcony  circle  to  be  carried 
down  to  the  second-story  hall  instead  of  up  to  the  third  story.  An 
iron  ladder  to  be  fixed  to  each  side  wall  leading  from  the  ends  of  the 
gallery  to  the  balcony.  A  stairway  to  be  constructed  behind  the  pri- 
vate boxes,  on  each  side,  from  the  balcony  to  the  main  floor,  and  from 
the  main  floor  to  the  basement.  Continuation  of  the  recently-widened 
wall  aisles  from  the  parquette  boxes  so  as  to  intercept  the  central  aisles 
in  order  to  get  increased  exits  from  the  orchestra  stalls.  In  connec- 
tion with  the  last-mentioned  stairways,  a  fire-proof  passage  six  feet 
wide  on  each  side  of  the  basement  story.  On  the  west  side  this  pass- 
age to  be  carried  from  the  boiler  room  to  the  front  basement  stairway 
leading  to  the  street ;  on  the  east  side  the  passage  to  be  carried 
from  the  stage  entrance  at  the  rear  to  the  basement  stairway  leading 
to  the  street.  In  consequence  of  the  construction  of  proscenium 
stairways,  the  abolition  of  the  proscenium  dressing  room,  reconstruc- 
tion of  the  dressing  rooms  under  the  auditorium  in  accordance  with 
the  theatre  ordinance,  placing  the  star  dressing  room  in  the  same 
place,  and  plastering  the  whole  ceiling  of  basement  under  the  audi- 
torium. 

"  2d.  An  increase  in  the  height  of  the  ventilators  over  the  stage 
so  that  the  draught  will  be  stronger  than  in  those  over  the  auditorium, 
and  the  introduction  of  valves  that  can  be  operated  from  several  points. 

"3d.  The  introduction  of  an  incombustible  curtain  that  will  falJ 
automatically  in  case  of  fire. 


11 

"  4tl'>-  I'lie  introduction  of  incandescent  electricity  for  lighting 
all  parts  of  the  house,  in  place  of  gas;  gas  only  to  be  used  for  the 
prominent  lights  in  the  auditorium  in  sufficient  quantity  to  serve  in 
emergencies,  and  to  be  lighted  at  all  times. 

"5th.  The  railings  of  all  open  stairways  to  have  strong  wire 
screens  on  top,  three  feet  high,  making  the  railing  six  feet  high,  so 
that  persons  cannot  be  thrown  over. 

"  6th.  Iron  hand-rails  on  strong  brackets  to  be  put  on  both  sides 
of  all  stairways. 

"  7th.  Three  additional  iron  balconies  to  be  put  up  on  the  front 
of  the  building,  one  on  each  side  at  the  fourth  floor,  and  one  in  the 
centre  at  the  fifth  floor  ;  these  all  being  connected  by  iron  stairways 
having  iron  railings. 

"  8th.  Mauls  and  saws  to  be  provided  on  both  sides  of  all  doors 
in  the  building  and  the  exit  notices  required  by  law  to  be  put  up. 

"  9th.  A  general  reformation  in  the  management  of  the  house 
with  reference  to  cleanliness  and  order  in  all  departments." 

The  answer  received  to  them  was  equivocal,  and  we  concluded 
that  it  was  almost  hopeless  to  expect  further  improvements.  The 
architect  who  had  made  drawings  showing  that  the  proposed  changes- 
were  practicable  was  never  authorized  to  do  anything. 

But  from  time  to  time  since  then  we  have  had  the  gratification  to 
see  many  improvements  and  alterations  made,  some  of  which  were 
not  even  suggested.  The  principal  one  was  the  introduction  of  the 
incandescent  system  of  electric  lighting  through  every  part  of  the 
house  and  stage.  The  old  gas  system  is  retained  only  in  part,  and  for 
use  during  the  day.  Now,  half  an  hour  before  the  doors  are  opened, 
every  gaslight  in  the  building  is  extinguished,  and  electricity  is  used 
everywhere.  Another  improvement  was  a  thorough  reform  in  the 
stage  management,  both  over  and  under,  and  a  better  disposition  of 
the  properties.  Where  all  was  dirt  and  disorder  before,  cleanliness  and 
order  now  prevail.  The  seats  have  again  been  re-arranged.  The  side 
aisles  have  been  continued  down  to  the  stage,  and  it  is  now  possible 
to  pass  from  the  front  seats  of  the  orchestra  to  the  main  entrance  by 
four  aisles,  instead  of  two.  There  is  now  more  room  from  back  to 
back  of  seats  than  in  any  other  theatre  in  the  city,  whereby  the  audi- 
ence can  more  readily  reach  the  aisles.  Formerly  the  word  "exit" 
was  displayed  over  dressing  rooms  on  each  side  of  the  entrance  and 
next  to  the  outside  walls.  The  only  possible  exi.ts  from  these  was- 
through  locked  doors  leading  to  the  rear  of  shops,  and  having  piles 
of  goods  and  furniture  in  front  of  them.  We  pronounced  these  to 
be  nothing  but  death'  traps  to  lure  the  unwary  to  places  from  which 
no  exit  was  possible.  They  have  now  been  abandoned  as  exits.  All 
stairways  to  the  upper  tier  have  now  been  supplied  with  wrought-iron 
hand-rails.  Two  additional  exits  from  the  balcony  to  the  second  story- 
of  the  office  building  have  been  put  in,  with  good  results. 


12 

One  essencial  re(|uirement  for  the  safety  of  an  audience  in  this 
building  has  been  neglected.  It  is  the  double  iron  stairway  on  the 
Monroe  street  front  from  the  fifth  and  fourth  stories  down  to  the 
large  balcony  over  the  sidewalk.  The  office  building  in  front  should 
be  availed  of  as  a  means  of  escape  and  temporary  resting  place  for  the 
occupants  of  the  two  galleries.  This  is  on  the  assumption  that  the 
crooked  stairways  might  become  obstructed  by  persons  falling,  or 
obscured  by  smoke.  The  office  building  is  large  enough  to  hold  as 
many  people  as  both  galleries.  Persons  in  the  second  gallery  could 
break  through  the  glass  doors  on  the  fourth  and  fifth  floors,  with  which 
all  the  offices  are  provided,  and  escape  down  the  front  by  means  of 
the  iron  stairways  recommended,  landing  on  the  large  porch  over  the 
■entrance.  Here  they  would  be  safe  until  the  Fire  Department  could 
get  them  to  the  street. 

This  exterior  fire  escape  is  an  improvement  which  should  be  insisted 
upon  as  an  immediate  expedient,  while  there  remains  to  be  made  some 
•others  which  were  suggested  in  our  former  request  in  writing. 

We  would  commend  the  management  and  discipline  of  the  em- 
ployes of  Haverly's  Theatre  in  the  highest  terms.  While  it  has  some 
defects,  still  there  are  points  of  excellence  which  are  fully  appreciated 
by  its  patrons,  as  its  exceptionally  large  audiences  testify. 

m'vicker's  theatre. 

In  our  last  report  we  expressed  the  opinion  that  exterior  iron 
balconies  and  stairways  should  be  put  up  on  the  alleys  at  each  side  of 
the  building,  connecting  with  the  gallery  floor,  also  that  the  exits  from 
the  main  floor  to  alleys  should  be  enlarged.  During  the  following 
year  Mr.  McVicker  put  up  the  most  complete  iron  stairways  on  both 
sides,  not  only  from  the  gallery  but  from  -the  balcony  floor,  that  we 
have  ever  seen.  The  lower  flight  of  each  of  these  stairways  is  made  so 
as  to  reach  the  ground,  but  is  held  up  by  a  chain  and  weight.  No 
machinery  is  needed  to  lower  these  stairways.  They  are  so  balanced 
that  the  weight  of  the  first  man  who  walks  out  on  them  will  bring 
them  down  into  the  proper  position.  The  alley  exits  from  first  floor 
have  also  been  enlarged.  With  the  exceptionally  favorable  location 
of  this  house,  free  from  all  other  buildings,  and  the  convenient  exits 
originally  provided,  it  now  stands  at  the  head  of  all  as  the  best  house 
in  this  city  to  afford  facilities  for  the  safe  dispersion  of  an  audience. 
For,  in  addition  to  the  new  iron  stairways,  it  has  an  office  building 
in  front,  with  a  large  balcony,  affording  shelter  to  the  gallery  audience 
in  case  the  stairways  are  not  available. 

In  the  last  report,  also,  we  said  that,  as  an  objectionable  feature,  the 
candy  manufactory  in  'the  front  basement,  had  been  partly  remedied, 
but  was  still  objectionable.  This  has  since  been  carefully  inspected 
by  a  sub-committee.     The  remedy  referred  to  was   the  closing  of  an 


13 

opening  between  a  part  of  the  candy  factory  and  the  basement  of  the 
theatre  by  an  iron  door.  This  we  would  hardly  consider  an  improve- 
ment but  for  the  fact  that  a  staircase  has  been  built  against  the  door, 
preventing  the  possibility  of  opening  it.  But  it  is  in  other  respects 
that  we  consider  the  candy  manufactory  to  be  not  only  objectionable 
but  dangerous.  It  consists  of  a  work  room  under  the  candy  store  and 
a  store  room  under  the  theatre  lobby.  The  communications  between 
the  store  and  the  factory  are  an  external  stairway  in  the  front  area 
and  a  stairway  from  the  theatre  lobby  itself. 

The  door  at  the  head  of  the  stairway  is  a  sash  door,  immediately 
opposite  the  box  office  and  facing  the  main  entrance  to  the  theatre, 
and  a  door  connects  the  store  with  the  theatre  lobby.  The  principal 
means  of  communication  between  the  store  and  factory  is  through 
this  last-mentioned  door  into  the  lobby,  and  thence  through  the  glass 
door  down  into  the  basement.  Early  in  the  year  a  sub-committee 
made  a  careful  examination  of  the  basement,  which  is  used  for  a 
factory  and  store  room,  and  of  its  relations  to  the  main  entrance  to  the 
theatre.  In  addition  to  the  fact  that  the  main  basement  room  is  used 
for  the  making  of  candy,  and  a  store  room  for  packing  it  in  boxes,  a 
business  which  is  always  recognized  as  extra  hazardous,  the  room 
itself  is  lined  throughout  with  boards,  and  contains  also  the  furnace 
for  heating  the  store,  the  pipe  of  which  was  in  very  bad  condition. 
At  the  time  the  examination  was  made,  which  was  in  the  afternoon 
we  found  that  a  coal-oil  lamp  was  used  to  light  this  stairway,  and  was 
placed  on  a  shelf  in  dangerous  proximity  to  paper  boxes.  The  effect 
of  a  fire  breaking  out  in  this  basement  at  any  time  while  the  main 
entrance  to  the  theatre  is  open,  would  be  the  creation  of  immense 
volumes  of  smoke,  which,  finding  their  proper  exnt  through  the  glass 
door  at  the  head  of  the  basement  stairs,  would  be  carried  by  the 
natural  current  of  air,  always  passing  in  through  the  theatre  lobby, 
directly  into  ths  auditorium,  and,  though  the  fire  might  be  insignificant, 
and  there  might  be  no  immediate  danger  of  communication  with  the 
auditorium,  the  amount  of  smoke  created  by  the  materials  contained 
in  this  basement  would  be  such  as  to  be  well  calculated  to  produce 
an  alarm  and  a  panic  in  the  theatre.  And,  inasmuch  as  the  audience 
would  endeavor  to  pass  out  mainly  through  the  principal  entrance,  the 
panic  would  be  increased  by  the  fact  that  they  would  be  obliged  to 
meet  the  incoming  volume  of  smoke. 

It  may  be  said  that  no  manufacturing  is  carried  on  during  per- 
formances, but  this  is  not  the  fact  in  regard  to  those  given  in  the  after- 
noons on  Wednesday  and  Saturday.  Even  supposing  that  the  base- 
ment is  not  used  at  night,  it  is  well  known  that  fires  are  created  long 
before  they  are  made  evident  by  smoke  and  flame,  and  we  conceive 
that  there  is  just  as  much   possibility  of  a  latent  fire  created  during 


•       14 

the  day,  breaking  out  during  the  commencement  of  an  evening 
performance,  as  at  any  other  time. 

We  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  only  way  to  prevent  such  a  con- 
tingency would  be  to  abolish  all  manufacturing  in  the  building.  At 
any  rate,  the  lobby  entrance  to  the  factory  should  not  only  be  disused, 
but  the  door  referred  to  should  be  closed  up  permanently  and  the 
outer  entrance  used  entirely  ;  this,  however,  in  our  opinion,  would 
only  be  a  mitigation  of  the  evil. 

With  these  exceptions,  we  find  the  arrangement  of  the  theatre  to 
be  commendable  in  almost  every  respect. 

We  examined  the  basement  and  heating  apparatus,  and  do  not 
think  any  improvement  in  the  heating  arrangements,  though  they  are 
'with  hot  air,  can  be  suggested. 

The  cleanliness  and  order  everywhere  prevailing  under  the  audi- 
torium are  in  marked  contrast  with  that  to  be  seen  in  most  of  the 
other  buildings. 

HOOLEV'S    THEATRE. 

Since  our  last  report,  extensive  improvements  have  been  made  in 
Hooley's  Theatre.  A  new  proscenium,  almost  entirely  built  of  cast 
iron,  has  been  added,  as  well  as  other  improvements  in  the  direction 
of  orderly  and  cleanly  management.  The  exits  seem  to  be  as  exten- 
sive and  complete  as  is  possible  to  arrange  them  in  a  house  situated 
as  this  is. 

OLYMPIC  THEATRE. 

This  house  remains  as  it  has  for  years  past.  It  has  only  one  gallery 
and  is  therefore  easily  emptied.  We  found  that  a  full  audience 
could  pass  out  in  three  and  a  half  minutes  ;  but,  in  case  of  a  panic, 
the  main  entrance  would  be  very  likely  to  become  obstructed.  It  is 
possible,  with  a  few  improvements,  to  afford  better  facilities  for  exit. 
The  house  was  not  built  for  a  theatre,  but  for  a  concert  hall,  and  it 
would  be  greatly  improved  if  the  whole  main  floor  was  lowered  so  as 
to  be  on  a  level  with  the  street,  the  basement  being  unnecessarily 
high.  This  basement  is  used  as  a  storehouse,  and  is  a  very  dangerous 
feature. 

CENTRAL    MUSIC    HALL. 

This  we  have  always  regarded  as  the  model  audience  hall  of  this 
city.  An  examination  last  spring  showed  that  the  small  room  in  the 
fifth  story  of  the  front  building,  known  as  Apollo  Hall,  was  too  much 
isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  building.  It  was  provided  only  with  a 
fire  escape  of  the  latest  patent  on  the  State  street  front,  and  this  is  not 
adequate  to  remove  two  hundred  people  liable  to  be  assembled  in  it. 
Since  that  time,  at  our  suggestion,  a  door  has  been  made  in.  the  rear 
wall,  and  a  bridge  constructed  to  the  roof  of  the  Music  Hall,  while  a 
fire-proof  stairway  passes  from  this  to  the  area  between  the  two  build- 
ings, over  which  persons  may  escape  through  the  stores  in  front. 


15 

We  think  that  an  iron  stairway  on  the  rear  alley  would  be  a  val- 
"uable  addition. 

CRITERION    THEATRE. 

On  a  previous  occasion  we  commented  severely  on  the  condition 
of  the  dressing  rooms  under  the  main  floor  of  this  theatre,  which  were 
made  entirely  of  boards  and  heated  with  stoves.  No  improvement 
has  been  made  in  these,  and  they  call  for  the  severest  condemnation. 
The  means  for  discharging  an  audience  seem  to  be  ample,  but  the 
audience  are  liable  to  be  discharged  on  one  side  into  an  alley  from 
which  they  could  not  escape  without  removing  a  fence. 

We  are  relieved  of  the  necessity  of  making  any  further  comments 
on  the  Lyceum  Theatre.  Fire  has  there  done  its  work,  fortunately 
without  great  loss  of  life,  and  very  recently.  As  the  house  will  soon 
"be  rebuilt,  it  will  receive  our  attention  in  due  time. 

Of  the  minor  theatres  we  only  desire  now  to  mention  one — the 
National ;  and  it  would  be  useless  to  particularize  the  objectionable 
features  of  this  building  ;  — we  can  only  say  that,  in  our  opinion, 
it  is  a  public  nuisance,  and  that  some  means  should  be  taken,  if  any 
are  possible,  for  its  suppression.  It  is  a  death-trap  to  which  the  poor 
and  the  ignorant  are  lured,  not  knowing  the  dangers  they  are  exposed 
to.  This  does  not  stand  alone  as  a  building  of  this  class,  but  is  worthy 
now  of  being  mentioned  as  an  example. 

The  result  of  our  efforts  to  effect  reforms  and  improvements  in 
places  of  public  amusement  by  the  force  of  moral  suasion  only,  has  on 
the  whole,  been  encouraging.  It  often  happens  that  where  we  are  at 
first  received  with  suspicion,  and  even  when  our  suggestions  are  regarded 
as  impertinence,  the  desired  improvements  follow  in  due  time.  We 
have  ceased  to  be  surprised  at  this.  We  see  in  this  the  potent  influence 
of  public  opinion  expressed  in  the  name  of  eight  hundred  citizens. 
Perhaps  sober  second  thoughts  suggest  that  the  returns  of  the  box 
office  may  reflect  the  pulsations  of  public  opinion  more  vigorously 
expressed.  At  any  rate,  there  has  been  more  disposition  to  comply 
with  our  wishes  than  we  expected,  and  as  long  as  there  is  any  inclina- 
tion on  the  part  of  managers  and  owners  to  improve  their  buildings, 
with  better  provisions  for  the  safety  of  audiences  and  actors,  it  matters 
not  to  us  what  may  be  their  motive  in  making  them.  The  accom- 
plishment of  actual  reforms  is  the  main  object  of  this  association  ; 
and  when  moral  suasion  or  private  admonition  are  of  no  avail  we  can 
see  no  better  method  of  enforcing  them  than  by  the  publication  of 
these  reports.  One  difficulty  in  having  them  complied  with  arises 
from  the  embarrassment  in  deciding,  as  between  owners  and  lessees,  to 
whom  should  fall  the  duty,  under  existing  leases,  of  making  the  re- 
quired improvements. 

Our  theatres  are  all  in  a  flourishing  financial  condition.     One  of 


16 

them  has  had,  during  the  past  year,  the  largest  average  weekly  receipts 
of  any  house  in  America.  They  are  all  better  patronized  in  the  sum- 
mer than  those  of  any  other  city.  It  is  within  the  possibilities  that 
these  encouraging  results  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  they  are  under 
stricter  surveillance  than  elsewhere,  and  that  intelligent  criticisms, 
expressed  in  a  kindly  spirit,  are  in  many  cases  received  with  a  due 
sense  of  the  responsibilities  involved  and  acted  on  with  a  sincere 
regard  for  the  interests  of  the  whole  community. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

P.    B.   WIGHT,  Chairman, 
AMOS  GRANNIS, 
WM.   E.   HALL, 
MARX  WINEMAN, 
S.   D.   KIMBARK, 
C.  W.   DREW, 

October    27     188^.  Committee  on  Theat7-es\vd  Jhiblic  Halls. 

Approved  and  ordered   published   by  the   Executive  Committee, 
November  20,  18S3. 

JNO.   L.   THOMPSON,  Presidrtit. 

GEO.   MILLS  ROGERS,   Secretary. 


REPOET  ON  THE  BANEROPTCI  LAW. 


To  tbe  Executive  Commiiiee  ol  He  Citizens'  Association  or  CMcago : 

Your  Committee  have  had  under  consideration  the  bill  now  before  the  Senate 
of  the  United  States,  which  is  the  result  of  the  joint  action  of  the  Senate  and 
House  Judiciary  Committees. 

As  we  understand,  this  bill  is  likely  to  pass  the  present  Congress,  and  to 
become  the  law  of  the  land. 

The  basis  of  this  bill  is  known  as  the  Lowell  bill,  and  is  substantially  a  re- 
production of  the  Bankrupt  Act  of  1867. 

Spasmodic  efforts  have  been  made  from  time  to  time  in  the  United  Stales  to 
establish  a  uniform  system  of  bankruptcy,  but  all  those  efforts  have  been  ad- 
mitted failures,  and  have  been  swept  away  as  injurious  to  commercial  pursuits, 
and  because  they  proved  to  be  of  value  only  to  dishonest  traders. 

The  public  experience  has  been  crystalized  into  the  statement  that  while  the 
debtor  went  through  and  obtained  his  discharge,  his  assets  went  around  and 
met  him  upon  the  other  side.  The  result  was  that  the  only  persons  benefited 
were  those  who  were  not  entitled  to  it,  viz:  the  dishonest  debtor,  the  attorneys 
who  made  bankruptcy  a  business,  and  the  assignees  and  other  officers.  The 
old  law  encouraged  dishonest  traders  to  become  more  dishonest,  and  to  go  into 
or  be  pyt  into  bankruptcy  for  the  sole  purpose  of  making  money  out  of  the 
transaction. 

England  has  had  the  same  experience,  and  her  bankrupt  law  has  operated  as 
badly  as  ours.  In  1869  Parliament  revised  the  Bankrupt  Law,  and  in  1883  its 
operations  had  been  so  bad  that  it  was  swept  away  and  a  new  Bankrupt  Law 
passed.     The  effect  of  that  law  has  not  been  tested. 

Our  law  of  1867  and  the  present  bill  arc  substantially  the  same  as  the  Eng- 
lish law  of  1869. 

The  supposed  improvements  of  the  present  bill  are: 

(A)  Assignees  are  called  Trustees. 

(B)  Registers  are  Commissioners — simply  a  change  of  names. 

(C)  A  new  ofiice  is  created  called  a  Supervisor.  His  fimctions  seem  to  be 
to  report  upon  the  general  workings  of  the  law.  It  is  an  ornamental  office, 
and,  as  anyone  of  experience  may  see  at  a  glance,  will  add  nothing  to  the  due 
administration  of  justice.     He  secures  a  good  salary. 

(D)  The  creditors  or  court  may  appoint  a  Committee  of  Direction.  That 
Committee  is  to  advise  the  Assignee  (Trustee)  in  the  management  of  the  estate. 


This  is  the  only  feature  of  the  new  bill  which  seems  to  promise  any  improve- 
ment, and  yet,  if  we  will  recall  our  experience  under  the  Act  of  1867,  how 
assignees  were  usually  elected  by  the  petitioning  creditors  or  their  attorneys, 
through  the  means  of  proxies  from  the  other  creditors,  it  is  not  difficult  to 
imagine  how  such  petitioning  creditors  will  also  appoint  the  Advisory  Com- 
mittee. It  is  just  as  easy  to  do  one  as  the  other,  and  such  Committee  when 
appointed  will  be  entirely  ornamental.  The  theory  seems  promising,  but  we 
who  reiTiember  the  pi-actical  workings  of  the  old  law  cannot  be  deceived  by  a 
theory. 

(E)  The  Register  (Commissioner)  is  to  receive  a  salary,  and  an  additional 
ten  dollars  a  case,  office  rent  and  clerk  hire,  if  allowed  by  the  Court.  It  will 
always  be  allowed,  and  it  will  prove  as  good  an  office  as  that  of  the  old  Regis- 
ter.    The  clerk  is  to  be  paid  ten  dollars  in  each  case. 

C  As  an  incentive  to  bankruptcy  lawyers,  they  are  to  be  paid  $200  out  of  the 
assets  for  procuring  adjudication. 

To  cover  the  salary  of  the  .Supervisor  and  Commissioner  the  Assignee 
(Trustee)  must  pay  over  to  the  clerk  one  per  cent,  of  the  gross  amount  realized 
in  excess  of  $500.  And  in  case  of  a  composition  under  the  Act  the  debtor 
must  pay  one-half  of  one  per  cent,  of  the  amount  to  the  Clerk.  As  to  the 
Assignee  (Trustee),  he  is  to  be  paid  out  of  the  assets  substantially  in  the  man- 
ner provided  in  the  Act  of  1867,  that  is,  what  the  Advisory  Committee  or  the 
creditors  vote  him,  or  speaking  from  our  experience,  what  the  attorneys  of  the 
petitioning  creditors,  who  control  the  matter,  allow  him. 

And  who  will  be  the  Assignee  or  Trustee.?  It  will  be  the  brother-in-law  or 
the  father-in-law  or  the  needy  next  of  kin  of  the  attorney  of  the  petitioning 
creditors. 

It  may  be  mentioned  that  the  allowance  to  the  Trustee  cannot  exceed  the 
commissions  allowed  in  the  Probate  Court,  which  in  this  state  is  six  per  cent. 

It  will  not  require  the  eye  of  a  critic  to  determine  that  the  costs  and  expenses 
under  this  proposed  Act  will  not  only  equal  but  will  far  exceed  those  of  the 
old  law.  Besides,  the  proposed  law  allows  the  voluntary  petitioner  to  pay  hi- 
attorney's  fees  in  advance.  This  will  ordinarily  avoid  the  necessity'  of  a  Trus- 
tee to  receive  the  assets  of  the  bankrupt's  estate. 

(F)  There  are  some  other  changes  which  are  not  matters  of  substance,  but 
a  codification  of  the  decisions  of  the  courts  construing  the  old  law 

The  other  changes  are  not  worth  mentioning. 

If  our  citizens  can  remember  as  far  back  as  1878,  we  are  sure  they  will  not 
desire  to  have  that  old  rotten  system  of  bankruptcy  restored.  Why  should  it 
be  restored.'  The  cry  went  up  all  over  the  land  tor  its  repeal.  Are  we  now 
so  foolish  or  inconsistent  as  to  have  it  restored. 

(G)  It  was  our  experience  that,  in  the  great  majority  of  supposed  involun- 
tary bankruptcies,  they  were  not  involuntary,  but  procured  by  the  bankrupts 
for  the  very  purpose  of  obtaining  a  discharge  and  saving  something  for  them- 
selves. The  composition  clause  of  the  Act  especially  leads  to  this  evil  and 
encourages  bankruptcy  instead  of  preventing  the  same. 


The  object  of  every  Bankruptcy  Law  should  be: 

I  St. — To  compel  a  trader  to  be  honest  in  order  to  avoid  the  Bankrupt  Court, 
to  compel  him  to  keep  proper  books,  and  to  stop  trading  the  moment  he  finds 
himself  in  a  failing  condition,  and  if  he  does  not  act  honestly,  to  prevent  his 
discharge  from  his  liabilities. 

2d. — To  distribute  ratably  all  the  assets  of  the  debtor  at  the  least  possible  cost. 

3d. — To  punish  by  imprisonment  fraudulent  traders. 

The  proposed  Bankrupt  Law  will  accomplish  none  of  these  things.      But  it 
may  be  said  that  it  would  greatly  benefit  those    insolvent  persons    who  now 
have  nothing  to  pay  with.      These  gentlemen   are  not  clamoring  for  a  Bank 
rupt  Law.     The  demand  comes  from  another  source. 

Our  limitation  laws  are  so  favorable  to  the  debtor  that  he  does  not  need  a 
discharge  in  bankruptcy.  Time  will  soon  relieve  him,  and  he  will  get  along 
very  comfortably  until  that  time. 

The  new  English  Bankrupt  Act,  which  went  into  operation  this  year,  con- 
tains some  provisions  which,  if  adopted,  would  greatly  add  to  the  merit  of  the 
proposed  law.  They  relate  to  discharges  from  the  debtor's  liabilities,  and,  after 
all,  that  and  his  punishment  as  a'criminal  for  his  frauds,  are  the  great  provis- 
ions for  the  protection  of  honest  traders.  In  that  act  the  court  is  granted  a 
iliscretion  in  the  following  cases  either  to  refuse  a  discharge  or  to  suspend  the 
operation  of  the  discharge  for  a  certain  time  or  grant  an  order  of  discharge 
subject  to  conditions,  viz: 

(A)  Where  the  bankrupt  has  continued  to  trade  after  knowing  himself  to 
be  insolvent.     The  proposed  Act  has  no  such  provision. 

(B)  When  the  bankrupt  has  contracted  any  debt  without  having  at  the 
time  any  reasonable  or  probable  ground  of  expectation  (proof  of  which  shall 
lie  on  him)  of  being  able  to  pay  it. 

(C)  That  the  bankrupt  has  brought  on  his  bankruptcy  by  rash  and  hazard- 
ous speculations  or  unjustifiable  extravagance  in  living. 

Why  should  a  speculator  in  margins  on  stocks  or  in  mai'gins  on  the  board 
oi  trade,  or  in  any  other  game  of  chance,  have  a  discharge.^ 

(D)  That  the  bankrupt  has  put  any  creditor  to  unnecessary  expense  by  a 
tVivolous  or  vexatious  defense  to  any  action  brought  against  him.  The  just- 
ness of  this  objection  needs  no  argument. 

(E)  Where  he  was  previously  adjudged  a  bankrupt  or  made  a  composition 
in  bankruptcy. 

(F)  Where  he  has  been  guilty  of  any  fraud  or  fraudulent  breach  of  trust. 
And  the  report  of  the  Supervisor  or  Commissioner  as  to  such  facts  should 

be  made  prima  facie  evidence  of  their  existence. 

The  English  Act  of  1SS3  also  provides  that  the  Court  as  one  of  the  condi- 
tions referred  to  in  that  class  of  cases  should  have  the  discretion  before  grant- 
ing a  discharge  to  require  the  bankrupt  to  consent  to  judgment  being  entered 
against  him  by  the  Trustee  for  any  balance  of  his  debts  not  satisfied  at  date 
of  his  discharge,  but  that  execution  should  not  issue  without  leave  of  the 
Court,  which  leave  should  be  given  on  proof  that  the  bankrupt  since  his  dis- 
charge has  acquired  property  or  income  available  for  payment  of  his  debts. 


This  seems  to  be  a  reasonable  provision,  when  the  bankrupt  has  not  shown 
himself  by  misfortune  to  have  become  insolvent,  and  when  he  falls  within  an\- 
of  the  objections  above  stated. 

Bankruptcy  itself,  as  defined  in  the  act  (with  one  exception)  should  be  made 
a  crime,  and  punished  as  such.  The  exception  is  that  of  simple  insolvency 
where  one  cannot  pay  his  debts  for  thirt}-  days,  but  all  the  other  acts  should  be 
made  a  crime  and  punished  as  such  because  they  involve  dishonesty. 

A  Bankrupt  Act  should  be  for  the  benefit  of  the  community,  and  not  simply 
a  shield  for  the  dishonest  debtor.  It  should  be  such  as  to  induce  traders  to  be 
honest,  and  thus  pi^event  loss  to  honest  dealers. 

We  cannot  consent  to  the  proposed  bill ;  it  is  simply  a  repetition  of  the  past. 
If  we  can  learn  wisdom  by  experience  do  not  let  us  repeat  that  experience. 
We  have  had  enough  of  that. 

There  is  no  demand  for  the  proposed  Bankrupt  Law,  so  far  as  your  Commit- 
tee are  advised,  except  on  the  part  of  insolvents,  bankruptcy  lawyers,  and  old 
assignees  and  other  officers.  We  do  not  think  the  business  community  de- 
mand the  proposed  law,  and  certainly  they  Avould  not  if  they  should  take  the 
time  to  look  into  its  provisions,  and  as  to  insolvent  debtors  the  limitation  laws 
of  the  state,  and  the  voluntary  action  of  their  creditors  will  sufficiently  care 
for  them. 

A  Bankrupt  Law  should  be  in  the  interest  of  commercial  traders,  and  of  the 
business  community. 

If  a  law  is  desired  for  already  insolvent  debtors  let  a  separate  law  be  passed 
for  their  benefit,  which  can  be  short,  and  will  hurt  no  business  interest,  but  no 
attempt  shovild  be  made  to  burden  the  communitj-  with  the  entire  old  system. 

We  believe  that  there  should  be  a  permanent  Bankrupt  Law  as  part  of  our 
commercial  system,  and  it  is  the  opinion  of  your  Committee  that  the  present 
revision  of  the  English  Bankrupt  Law  forms  a  proper  basis  for  our  legislators 
to  act  upon.  The  points  of  that  law  which  we  specially  endorse  are  already 
referred  to ;  we  think  there  is  a  general  feeling  that  the  commercial  law  of  this 
entire  country  should  be  brought  into  harmony,  and  a  proper,  permanent 
Bankrupt  Law  would  tend  in  that  direction. 
Respectfully  submitted, 

A.  M.  Pence, 
E.  G.  MA.SON, 

Cfiic(i<ro,  April  24^  1884.  Geo.  Schneider, 

O.  S.  A.  Sprague, 

J.  W.  DOANE, 

Committee  on  the  Bankruptcy  Law,  Citizens'  Association  of  Chtcago. 

Published  by  order  of  the  Executive  Committee. 

J.  C.   A.MBLER,  Sec^y. 


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REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE 


/'^ 


ON 


Tenement  Houses 


OF    THE 


CITIZENS'  /^SSOCmTION 


OF  CHICAGO. 


Rooms,  35  Merchants'  Building. 


SEIPTEls^BEI^,  ISQ-i. 


CHICAGO 

(iEo.  K.  Hazlitt  iSl-   Co.,  Printers,    172   and   174  Clakx   Stkeet. 

1884. 


Citizens'  Association  of  Cliicas'o. 


ESTABLISHED    1874. 


EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE,  1883-4. 


JOHN  L.  THOMPSON.  EDWIN  LEE  BROWN, 

President.  Vice-President, 

A.  A.  CARPENTER,  FRANCIS  B.  PEABODY, 

MARX  WINEMAN,  MAX  A.  MEYER, 

EDSON  KEITH,  ERSKINE  M.  PHELPS, 

M.  A.  RYERSON,  A.  W.  KINGSLAND, 

A.  F.  SEEBERGER,  R.  T.  CRANE, 

MARSHALL  FIELD,  J.  HARLEY  BRADLEY, 
GEO.  MILLS  ROGERS. 


GEO.  SCHNEIDER,  J.  C.  AMBLER, 

Treasurer.  Secretary. 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE 


ON 


TENEMENT  HOUSES. 


To  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Citizens'  Association  of 
Chicago. 

The  undersigned  Committee  on  Tenement  Houses,  to 
whom  was  referred  the  subject  indicated  by  its  name, 
beg  to  report  that  they  commenced  its  examination 
from  the  starting  point  of  last  year's  report,  made  by 
a  committee  of  which  a  majority  of  our  number  were 
members.  That  was  compiled  after  a  thorough  [per- 
sonal examination  of  the  whole  field,  a  task  in  which 
they  had  the  aid  of  the  City  Health  Department  and 
the  newspapers.  The  statistics  with  regard  to  the  work- 
ing population  were  authenticated  by  the  best  obtainable 
authorities  and  have  been  verified  by  subsequent  research. 
We  will,  as  briefly  as  possible,  rehearse  the  salient  points 
of  that  document,  so  as  to  render  our  subsequent  remarks 
more  intellie^ible. 


'ta' 


It  sets  forth  the  wretched  condition  of  the  tenements 
into  which  thousands  of  the  workingmen  are  huddled, 
the  wholesale  violation  of  all  rules  for  drainage,  plumb- 
ing, light,  ventilation  and  safety  in  case  of  fire  or  acci- 
dent, the  neglect  of  all  laws  of  health,  the  horrible 
condition  of  sewers  and  outhouses,  the  filthy,  dingy 
rooms  into  which  they  are  crowded,  the  unwholesome 
character  of  their  food,  and  the  equally  filthy  nature  of 
the  neighboring  streets,  alleys  and  back  lots,  filled  with 
decaying  matter  and  stagnant  pools.  It  gives  statements 
of  the  national'and  other  characteristics  of  the  emigration 


to  this  country  of  those  who  become  identified  with  our 
working  classes,  their  mode  of  life  at  home  and  after 
their  arrival  and  settlement  here.  It  gives  estimates  of 
the  numbers  of  wage-workers  and  their  distribution 
among  the  different  trades  and  employments;  also  of  the 
average  wages  and  pecuniary  capacity  of  various  classes 
of  workmen  and  employes,  demonstrates  the  extrava- 
gantly high  proportion  of  rent  to  their  wages  paid  by 
workmen,  and  exposes  the  scandalous  and  disgraceful 
system  of  lodging-house  keeping  in  Chicago;  it  gives 
brief  but  appalling  suggestions  of  the  diseases  known  to 
exist  in  the  crowded  and  unwholesome  dens  visited  by 
the  committee  ;  it  points  to  the  fact  that  all  these  com- 
bined drive  many  of  the  better  class  of  workmen  to  seek 
homes  outside  the  city,  and  refers  to  the  facts  and  possi- 
bilities of  political  and  moral  corruption  invited  by  the 
wretched  condition  and  surroundings  of  the  classes 
treated  in  the  report.  It  alludes  to  the  almost  entire 
impossibility  of  their  being  able  to  relieve  their  condition 
by  their  own  efforts,  with  the  reasons  why  they  show 
little  if  any  desire  for  social  improvement,  and  suggests 
one  of  the  reasons  why  4,000  saloons  flourish  in  Chicago 
as  being  that  their  patrons  have  no  better  place  for 
meetins:  and  recreation.  It  also  contrasts  the  mode  of 
life  of  American  work  people  and  their  foreign  brethren, 
makes  suggestions  for  beneficial  legislation,  including 
some  of  a  compulsory  character,  such  as  demolition  of 
filthy  houses,  for  sanitary  reasons.  It  does  justice,  how- 
ever, to  those  who  have  kept  themselves  free  from  con- 
tamination and  maintained  the  respectability  consequent 
upon  correct  habits,  and  who  bring  up  their  families  in 
conformity  with  the  same  code  of  moral  principles  which 
has  regulated  their  own  lives,  referring  to  them  in  gen- 
eral terms  as  the  married  portion  of  the  Americans  and 
those  speaking  English,  and  the  Germans  and  Scandi- 
navians ;  while  at  the  same  time  it  deplores  the  absence 
of  the  family  tie  in  too  many  instances,  amongst  the 
unmarried  of  the  same  class  whose  lot  casts  them  into 
the  lodging  or  boarding  house. 


All  these  statistics  and  observations  are  made  the 
basis  of  a  suggestion  for  relief  by  the  erection  of  model 
tenement  houses  on  a  plan  the  sketch  of  which  accom- 
panied that  report,  which  was  itself  the  subject  of 
extended  comment  and  criticism  of  a  generally  favorable 
character  by  the  press  at  that  time.  Some  modifications 
and  amplifications  were  suggested  which  this  committee 
cheerfully  accept  and  embody  in  the  recommendations 
hereinafter  put  forth,  and  inasmuch  as  the  twelve  months 
which  have  elapsed  since  the  publication  of  that  report 
have  been  prolific  of  schemes  and  plans  for  the  ameliora- 
tion of  the  condition  of  the  workingman  by  providing 
him  with  better  accommodations  at  a  cheap  or  reasonable 
rate,  it  is  as  well  that  the  comparatively  short  delay  in 
taking  steps  to  carry  out  the  suggestion  of  the  first 
report  has  occurred,  as  the  scheme  can  now  be  approach- 
ed with  a  better  knowledge  of  the  whole  situation. 

The  condition  of  wage-workers  throughout  the  world 
furnishes  the  basis  for  all  the  discussions  with  regard  to 
capital  and  labor  ;  it  is  the  underlying  cause  for  the  for- 
mation of  all  labor  societies  and  trades-unions;  it  is  the 
basis  of  socialistic  principles  and  the  fruitful  cause  of 
communistic  disturbances.  As  the  world  advances  in 
population,  intelligence  and  wealth,  and  the  ever  increas- 
ing necessities  of  life  bring  about  new  demands  upon 
mechanical  skill  and  ingenuity,  this  absorbing  question 
comeb  more  prominently  to  view,  intensified  in  all  its 
bearings  by  the  modern  tendency  to  centralization  and 
aggregation,  which  is  an  undisputed  fact. 

Trades-unions  seek  to  improve  the  condition  of  the 
workman  by  an  advance  in  wages  ;  socialistic  bodies  by 
exemplifications  of  theories,  many  of  which  are  fallacies; 
communists  by  the  advocacy  of  destructive  principles, 
and  the  political  demagogue  holds  out  inducements  of 
any  kind  to  catch  the  votes  or  good  will  of  the  unthink- 
ing or  unwary.  None  of  these  appear  to  reach  down  to 
the  root  of  the  matter,  nor  to  advance  the  idea  that  the 


betterment  desired  can  be  accomplished  more  easily  by 
reducing,  at  the  outset,  the  cost  of  living,  particularly  in 
the  very  important  primary  item  of  house  rent. 

Before  proceeding  to  present  the  main  features  and 
recommendations  of  this  report,  we  will  give  a  few  facts 
and  make  a  few  observations  on  topics  which  are  kindred 
to  the  subject  and  are  necessary  for  its  thorough  com- 
prehension, although  they  more  properly  belong  to  its 
political  than  to  its  practical  and  economic  aspect. 

There  are  in  Chicago  not  less  than  eighty-five  trade 
and  labor  organizations  and  Knights  of  Labor  assemblies 
and  similar  societies  of  workmen,  which  have  central 
organizations  where  they  meet  by  delegation  for  the  dis- 
cussion of  such  subjects  as  are  of  interest  to  their  craft, 
and  there  are  also  central  and  other  labor  clubs  for 
political  purposes ;  there  is  besides,  another  society 
meeting  under  the  style  of  Proletarians,  a  name  which 
indicates  its  object.  These  societies  and  clubs  comprise 
distinct  bodies  for  nearly  every  trade  and  calling,  with 
such  branches  and  unions  as  are  necessary.  We  find 
seamen,  working-women,  barbers,  musicians  and  others 
formed  into  unions  which  but  a  few  years  since  were 
unknown,  and  there  are  daily  and  other  workingmens* 
papers  and  periodicals  published  in  several  languages. 

It  is  a  noteworthy  fact,  as  well  stated  here  as  else- 
where, that  the  percentage  of  native  American  popul- 
ation engaged  in  handicraft  is  gradually  lessening,  partly 
because  from  their  mode  of  life  they  cannot  work  so 
cheaply,  and  partly  because  the  growing  or  underaged 
portion,  the  girls  and  boys,  prefer  to  find  employment  in 
stores  and  offices  as  salespeople  or  cash  or  errand  boys, 
rather  than  to  enter  factories  or  workshops  or  become 
apprentices  to  trades. 

The  working  classes  having  thus  organized  themselves 
into  unions  and  clubs  with  central  administrative  bodies. 


are  in  a  position  to  be  dealt  with  as  a  body  in  all  cases 
where  their  own  well  being  and  advancement  on  the  one 
hand  and  the  interests  of  capitalists,  property  holders  and 
manufacturers,  on  the  other,  are  in  question.  It  seems 
evident  that  the  latter  should  likewise,  by  combination, 
be  in  a  position  to  meet  the  questions  of  the  hour  in  a 
practical  manner,  and  apply  the  proper  remedies  for  the 
general  discontent  and  occasional  popular  outbreaks  that 
a  long  period  of  mercantile  depression  is  apt  to  engender ; 
but  as  the  recommendation  of  any  plan  for  such  a  com- 
bination is  beyond  the  scope  of  tliis  committee's  duties, 
we  will  confine  ourselves  to  suggestions  for  benefitting 
the  working  classes  in  the  way  that  we  consider  the  most 
important  for  them,  which,  if  adopted,  will  be  a  long 
stride  in  the  direction  of  a  general  movement  to  bring 
capital  and  labor  into  a  closer  economic  union. 

It  is  only  within  a  few  years  that  any  effort  has  been 
made  in  this  country  to  benefit  the  working  classes  by 
the  provision  of  comfortable  and  convenient  tenements 
for  their  use  at  a  moderate  rent. 

The  most  notable  of  their  kind  in  other  countries 
are  those  provided  by  Peabody  in  London,  by  Krupp  in 
Germany,  at  Creuzot  in  France  and  at  Saltaire  in  Eng- 
land. But  the  governments  of  some  of  the  European 
countries  are  fully  aroused  to  the  importance  of  the  matter, 
and  have  taken  the  lead  of  private  capitalists  in  building 
operations  of  the  kind;  thus,  in  England,  under  the 
guise  of  sanitary  regulation,  the  "Artisans'  Dwellings" 
act  makes  it  compulsory  on  municipalities  to  purchase 
and  destroy  whole  blocks  of  buildings  in  certain 
peculiar  cases,  and  erect  in  their  place  commodious  and 
wholesome  tenements ;  the  funds  necessary  for  the  pur- 
pose are  supplied  by  the  royal  treasury  at  a  low  rate  of 
interest  and  with  easy  terms  of  re-payment.  In  Belgium 
a  recent  resolution  of  their  parliament  or  chambers  de- 
clared that  the  provision  of  better  and   cheaper  housing 


8 

for  work  people  is  the  fundamental  source  of  allaying  dis- 
content, and  the  best  guarantee  of  the  stability  of  their 
political  institutions.  In  France  the  system  in  vogue  is 
much  better  than  in  many  other  countries,  but  amend- 
ments are  sought  and  their  legislative  chambers  are 
engaged  in  the  discussion  of  laws  for  the  improvement 
of  the  homes  of  the  poor  in  large  cities.  In  Germany 
much  progress  has  been  made  in  the  same  direction  and 
the  subject  engages  the  attention  of  their  wisest  states- 
men. Recent  legislation  in  far  distant  Australia  em- 
powers the  demolition  of  any  old,  dilapidated  or 
unhealthy  dwelling  within  city  limits  at  the  expense  and 
risk  of  the  proprietor;  1,300  houses  have  been  so 
destroyed  and  other  buildings  erected  in  their  place. 

It  is  fortunate  that  our  system  of  business  needs  no 
governmental  aid  or  advice,  neither  does  it  require  the 
example  or  beneficence  of  a  Peabody.  When  the  necessity 
or  convenience  of  a  project  is  apparent,  and  the  moment- 
ous question — will  it  pay? — has  been  settled,  the  work  is 
speedily  undertaken.  The  amount  of  capital  lying  idle 
and  awaiting  profitable  employment,  already  enormous, 
is  increasing  daily  and  the  impatience  of  its  owners  to 
rush  into  railway  and  other  joint  stock  investments  has 
received  such  severe  checks  in  the  past,  that  a  recent 
very  marked  decline  in  shares  amounting  almost  to  a 
general  panic,  did  not  draw  out  the  accumulated  hoards 
in  the  banks  to  any  great  extent  for  such  a  purpose  ;  out- 
side of  regular  operators  in  speculative  shares  and  com- 
modities, there  appears  to  be  a  decided  disinclination  to 
invest  money  except  in  a  very  safe  and  conservative 
manner,  and  we  believe  that  such  an  investment  can  be 
found  in  the  erection  and  maintainance  of  dwellings  for 
workingmen  and  the  poor,  on  a  large  scale,  with  perfect 
security  and  a  greater  profitable  annual  return  than  in 
railway  or  other  more  doubtful  projects.  A  double  result 
would  thus  be  obtained — the  amelioration  of  the  condition 
of  those  who  are  compelled  to  live  in  uncomfortable  or 
filthy    quarters    because    they    have   not    the    means   or 


opportunity  of  doing  better,  and  the  profitable  employ- 
ment of  capital.  In  the  whirl  of  business  prosperity  and 
of  speculation,  heretofore,  this  has  escaped  the  atten- 
tion of  moneyed  men  of  large  and  philanthropic  views, 
with  the  result  of  keeping  back  such  improvements  and 
leaving  to  the  tender  mercies  of  the  avaricious  and  un- 
feeling the  housing  of  the  vast  multitude  of  artisans  and 
laborers.  Happily  this  has  not  been  universally  the  case 
as  we  see,  with  us  here,  near  Chicago,  the  Pullman 
enterprise  and  in  New  York  the  buildings  erected  by  the 
association  for  improving  the  dwellings  of  the  poor. 
Philadelphia  has  gained  imperishable  renown  by  the 
history  of  her  building  societies,  which  have  done  so 
much  to  improve  the  condition  of  her  work-people  and 
others.  Several  similar  institutions  have  been  tried  in 
Chicago,  but  they  do  not  seem  to  be  popular,  as  the 
system  involves  a  high  rate  of  interest,  which  keeps 
many  from  entering  their  plans.  In  Chicago,  a  great 
many  flats  have  been  erected  and  have  been  successful 
for  the  purposes  intended,  that  of  housing  a  better  class 
of  tenants  than  those  which  are  the  subject  of  these 
remarks,  and  the  question  immediately  arises  :  Why  not 
continue  the  process  by  erecting  such  buildings  for  a 
poorer  class  of  people  and  on  property  of  a  smaller  price 
on  account  of  its  location?  If  it  pays  in  one  instance  it 
will  in  another. 

The  ability  of  Chicago  working  people  to  pay  rent 
sufficient  to  make  such  buildings  profitable,  if  erected  in 
proper  localities  and  on  rational  plans,  cannot  be  doubted 
when  we  reflect  that  for  some  of  the  wretched  tenements 
they  now  occupy,  they  are  fleeced  at  a  rate  which  returns 
25  to  40  per  cent  per  annum  of  the  value  of  the  property. 
Capitalists,  disposed  to  benefit  the  poor,  do  not  seem  to 
understand  these  important  facts,  probably  for  the  reason 
that  they  do  not  usually  come  in  contact  with  the  ten- 
ants to  be  benefitted  by  a  change  of  condition,  and  that 
the  complaints  and  laments  which  are  so  loud  do  not 
come  directly  to  them  from  the  poor  inhabitants  of 
2* 


lO 

crowded  tenement  houses  and  dark,  foul  slums ;  they 
are  more  from  official  sources  and  newspaper  articles 
which  are  sometimes  read  and  always  forgotten. 

The  population  of  Chicago,  as  shown  by  the  recent 
school  census,  is  630,000,  from  which,  if  we  deduct  230,- 
000  for  the  young  and  aged  and  those  not  able  to  work 
for  their  living,  and  150,000  for  merchants,  store-keepers, 
bankers,  political  employes,  professionals,  their  clerks  and 
domestic  servants  and  all  idlers,  we  have  250,000  adults 
who  are  wage-workers  in  the  different  trades,  railway 
employes,  factory  hands,  laborers  and  the  like.  A  table 
prepared  with  as  much  care  as  possible,  shows  that  the 
wages  earned  by  these  250,000  people  range  from  $2  to 
$25  per  week,  taking  in  the  whole  list  of  employment  for 
girls,  boys,  women,  skilled  workmen  and  laborers,  and  the 
researches  made  last  year  and  since,  indicate  that  a  very 
moderate  tenement  as  to  decency  and  size,  even  in  the 
outskirts  of  the  city,  costs  about  $I0  per  month.  We 
propose  to  show  that  superior  accommodations  can  be 
furnished  at  prices  within  the  reach  of  the  poorer  class 
of  people,  and  a  very  fair  rate  of  interest  obtained  on 
the  investment  of  the  capital.  But  before  doing  so  we 
will  give  some  account  of  what  has  been  done  in  other 
cities  for  the  same  object. 

The  Peabody  buildings  in  London  have  been  so  often 
described  that  we  shall  but  give  them  the  passing  notice, 
that  they  have  been  a  success  in  every  particular.  Prior 
to  the  introduction  of  the  Artisans'  and  Laborers'  Dwel- 
lings Act  of  1875  in  England,  to  which  we  have  alluded 
above,  no  less  than  28  Associations  formed  with  the 
object  we  advocate  in  view,  had  provided  improved 
homes  for  32,435  persons  at  a  cost  of  $6,000,000,  and  at 
an  average  weekly  rental  of  50  to  70  cents  for  one  room, 
75  to  90  cents  for  two  rooms,  and  $r.io  to  $1.60  for  three 
rooms.  The  profit  realized  varied  from  2^  to  6^  per 
cent.  Since  the  operation  of  tha't  law,  which  makes  the 
eradication  of  low,   mean  and   unhealthy  neighborhoods 


II 

compulsory,  the   London   Metropolitan   Board  of  Works 
have  dealt  with    12  areas,  aggregating  40  acres,  at  a  cost 
of  $7,500,000,  and  as  the  money  supplied  by  government 
costs  $j4  per  cent,  and  the  new  buildings  erected  have 
been  immediately  filled   up  by  tenants,  it  is  presumable 
that  at  least  that  rate  has  been  realized  over  and  above 
taxes,  insurance  and  other  charges.     Besides  these  opera- 
tions of  the  Municipal  Authorities,  companies  are  now 
constantly  forming  for  the  same  purpose,  and   a  general 
report  on  the  subject  says  "the  existing  Companies  in 
the  metropolis  formed  to  provide  dwellings  for  the  indus- 
trial classes,  pay  about  five  per  cent,  and  the  demand  for 
such  tenements  far  exceeds  the  supply."  In  January  of  this 
year  the  foundation   stone  for  a  new  block  of  buildings 
for  artisans  and  laborers,  was  laid  in  one  of  the  poorest 
districts  of  London.     A  report  says,  "  they  will  be  equal 
if  not  superior  to  any  similar   dwellings   now  existing   in 
the  kingdom — well  built,  well  ventilated,  and  well  drained  ; 
divided  into  five  blocks  of  varying  heights,  comprising  531 
rooms   in    241    tenements    of  one,    two   or  three  rooms 
respectively ;  20    shops   will    be    erected    as    part  of  the 
scheme.     The  land  will  cost  two-thirds  of  the  whole  out- 
lay."    The  report  continues,   "  the  rents  cannot  be  very 
low,  but  the  tenants  will   not  pay  more  than  they  have 
been  accustomed  to  do  for  their  wretched  hovels,  and 
will   have  the  advantage  of  clean,  well  ventilated  apart- 
ments.'"    How    well    suited   such    a    range    of  buildings 
would  be  to  the  wants  of  Chicago,  and   how   accurately 
the  last  clauses  define  the  position  here.     The  Waterlow 
buildings     recently    erected    in    London,  are  the    most 
improved,  for  Artisans,  now  in  existence  there,  and  have 
been  the  subject    of   comment    and    illustration    in    this 
country  ;  the  rents  are  $71  to  $78  per  year  for  two  rooms, 
$91  to  $97  for  three,  and  $117  for  four  rooms,  and  the 
building  pays  dividends  of  five  per  cent,  two  per  cent  to 
a  repair  fund,  something  to  an  equalization   fund  to   be 
used  for  dividends  in  bad  years,  and  something  to  a  lease- 
hold redemption   fund.     The  stock  sells   at    112.     This 
financial   exhibit   is  worthy   of  close  study  by  those  who 


12 

propose  to  elevate  and  help  the  workingmen.  What 
kind  of  rooms,  two  in  number,  can  be  got  in  this  city  for 
$71  per  year?  We  could  give  an  account  of  other  build- 
ings for  the  same  purpose,  but  these  are  sufficient  for  the 
object  of  this  report. 

A  commission  is  now  sitting  in  London,  taking  testi- 
mony on  the  subject,  and  their  report  will  be  looked  for 
with  much  interest.  A  lively  controversy,  just  ended,  on 
"housing  the  poor,''  between  two  such  titanic  antagonists 
as  Lord  Salisbury  and  Mr.  Chamberlain,  is  very  instruc- 
tive reading.  London  correspondence  says:  "  The  ques- 
tion of  the  housing  of  the  London  poor — or,  as  Cardinal 
Manning  prefers  to  call  them,  London  workmen,  has  not 
yet  been  relegated  to  ancient  history,  but  still  remains 
an  all-absorbing  topic.  This  week  the  clergy  have  met, 
in  various  parts  of  London  to  discuss  the  matter.  It  can- 
not be  denied  that  much  good  has  followed  from  the 
publicity  given  to  this  question  of  the  homes  of  the 
poor." 

In  London,  many  "  Homes"  for  working-women  have 
been  established  where  they  can  obtain  excellent  board 
and  lodging  at  a  reasonable  rate,  on  the  plan  elaborated 
by  John  Shrimpton  and  they  have  been,  as  far  as  we  can 
learn,  very  successful  in  every  way.  "  Their  residents 
are  on  an  independent,  not  charitable  basis."  It  must 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  cost  of  such  structures  in  Lon- 
don is  excessively  high,  because  other  buildings  have  to 
be  purchased  and  demolished,  and  the  value  of  the  land 
occupied  is  out  of  all  proportion,  in  the  total  cost,  to  that 
of  Chicago. 

In  New  York  the  system  of  providing  model  tene- 
ments for  the  working  classes  has  passed  as  far  beyond 
the  experimental  stage  as  it  has  in  London.  Some  of 
the  buildings  erected  or  altered  for  the  purpose,  by  Miss 
Collins,  show  the  following  results :  One  of  five  stories, 
costing   $21,200,  occupied    by    114   persons,    with    rents 


13 

ranging  from  $3  to  $4.50  per  month,  gives  a  return  ot 
profit  between  6  and  7  per  cent.  Gotham  Court,  a  block 
of  sixteen  five-story  houses,  contains  600  persons  in  123 
families,  and  pays  6^^  per  cent.,  although  the  rents  are 
but  $3  to  $8  per  room.  The  Improved  Dwellings  Asso- 
ciation building,  containing  900  persons,  with  rents  rang- 
ing from  $7.75  to  $14.75  per  family,  pays  5^  per  cent,  to 
the  stockholders. 

The  Home  buildings  in  Brooklyn,  with  44  families, 
the  rents  ranging  from  $6  to  $7.95  per  month,  pay  7  per 
cent,  on  the  investment,  and  a  report  says  :  "  When  it 
is  remembered  that  $10  and  even  $15  are  now  being  paid 
by  the  laboring  classes  for  two-room  apartments,  dirty, 
badly  lighted,  and  with  no  ventilation,  in  tenements  that 
are  a  disgrace  to  the  city,  the  prediction  that  such 
improved  dwellings  would  doubtless  be  filled  at  once  at 
the  above  rents  will  not  seem  to  be  visionary."  We 
could  add  other  illustrations  of  our  subject  in  those 
cities  if  the  above  were  not  enough.  We  will  refer  to 
Prof.  Adlers'  movement  to  secure  better  tenements  in 
New  York,  the  fundamental  idea  of  which  is  to  induce 
Capitalists,  from  philanthropic  motives,  to  enter  the 
project  and  consent  to  accept  3  per  cent,  per  annum  on 
their  investment,  merely  for  the  purpose  of  remarking 
that  the  time  has  not  yet  arrived,  in  Chicago,  for  such  an 
undertaking.  He  proposes  to  lease  the  buildings  so  as  to 
pay  6  or  8  per  cent.,  and  to  form  a  sinking  fund  with  the 
difference  which  shall  refund  the  advances  and  leave  the 
tenants'  rent  free,  or  perhaps  owners. 

In  all  cases  that  we  have  examined  it  has  been  found 
that  the  new  blocks  and  dwellings  described  above  have 
been  sought  for  and  occupied  by  a  better  class  of  people 
than  that  for  which  they  were  originally  designed,  and 
that  is  one  of  the  practical  difficulties  in  the  way  of  phi- 
lanthropic effort ;  but  it  is  one  of  the  most  natural  of 
occurrences,  and  it  is  no  reason  why  the  experiment 
should  not  be  continued  on  such  an  increased  scale  of 


magnitude  as  will  compel  all  landlords  or  owners  of  tene- 
ment houses  to  furnish  better  accommodations  than  they 
do,  at  cheaper  rates.  If  a  tenant  could  point  out  the 
fact  that  increasing  efforts  are  being  made  for  his  benefit 
in  this  way,  he  has  a  foothold  and  a  defense  against 
extortion.  That  such  buildings  are  sought  for  by  the 
better  classes  of  wage-workers,  is  evidence  that  more  of 
them  are  needed.  The  greater  the  number,  the  more 
rapidly  will  the  present  evils  of  tenement  houses  be 
overcome. 

In  Boston  little  has  been  done,  except  in  the  way  of 
agitation,  which,  it  is  hoped,  will  be  quickened  into  prac- 
tical results  if  proper  attention  is  given  to  the  recent 
report  of  the  Massachusetts  Bureau  of  Statistics  and 
Labor.  This  compares  the  prices  of  labor  and  the  cost 
of  living  in  Massachusetts  and  Great  Britain,  showing 
that  rents  in  the  former  commonwealth  are  Sq^^^^"  P^^ 
cent,  higher  than  in  the  last  named  country,  while 
groceries  are  but  i^^f-^  per  cent.,  clothing  but  i8  per 
cent,  and  shoes  42y\^-q  per  cent,  higher  in  Massachusetts ; 
the  articles  named,  as  also  the  tenements,  are  of  the 
grades  used  by  workingmen.  The  average  rent  for  one 
room  in  Massachusetts  is  $34.88  per  year,  while  in  Great 
Britain  it  is  but  $18.02  per  year.  In  Massachusetts  rent 
is  19^  per  cent,  of  the  whole  cost  of  workmen's  living — 
in  Great  Britain  it  is  13^  per  cent.  Yet  it  can  scarcely 
be  said  that  land  or  building  expenses  are  higher  in  New 
than  in  Old  England.  It  costs  $114  to  lodge  an  unmar- 
ried workman  in  Massachusetts,  and  but  $65  in  Great 
Britain  ;  that  is,  in  cases  where  they  are  occupants  of 
so  called  lodging  or  boarding  houses,  but  those  figures 
do  not  include  subsistence.  In  Boston,  however,  there 
have  been  very  successful  undertakings  to  provide  com- 
fortable lodging  rooms  for  working  women  at  cheap 
rates ;  the  London  plan  alluded  to  above  finds  great 
favor. 

Philadelphia  has  not  inaptly  been  termed  the  "  Poor 
man's  Paradise,"  for  there,  more  than  in  all  other  places 


15 

in  America,  has  been  carried  out  a  system  of  tenements 
for  the  working  classes  ;  the  peculiarity  in  their  case  is 
that  it  has  been  done  by  the  men  themselves,  through 
Building  or  Loan  Societies  which,  though  they  have 
existed  elsewhere,  have  never  flourished  as  there.  We 
see  in  the  peculiarities  of  that  and  other  cities  a  proof 
that  here  in  Chicago  some  originality  of  design  and  sys- 
tem is  needed  for  our  purposes,  growing  out  of  the 
topography  of  the  city,  and  the  varied  nature  of  the  pur- 
suits and  the  character  of  the  classes  to  be  dealt  with. 
What  is  good  for  London,  New  York  or  Philadelphia, 
needs  modification  when  applied  here. 

In  Chicago  nothing  has,  as  yet,  been  done  for  work- 
ing-men's dwellings  in  the  manner  shown  in  other  cities, 
although  in  1883  there  were  1,142  so  called  "  flat  "  build- 
ings erected  or  put  in  course  of  erection,  which,  with  but 
few  exceptions,  were  rented  for  from  $15  to  $125  per 
month  for  each  flat  or  family,  an  expense  in  most  cases 
entirely  beyond  the  means  of  mechanics,  clerks,  and  the 
middle  class  of  merchants'  employes.  Permits  were  also 
issued  for  4S3  tenement  houses,  by  private  builders,  who 
rent  to  those  who  will  pay  the  most  for  their  habitations, 
and  who  give  as  meagre  accommodations  for  the  money 
as  the  tenants  will  submit  to.  An  official  report  on  the 
subject  says:  "Small  salaried  people  must  either  seek 
suitable  quarters  at  great  distances  from  their  places  of 
employment,  in  localities  remote  from  grocery,  provision 
or  meat  markets,  inconvenient  to  school  houses,  inade- 
quately protected  by  police  service,  or  submit  to  the 
demands  of  an  usurious  landlord  for  mere  pigsties  in  the 
miserable  tumble-down  unsanitary  rookeries  in  close 
proximity  to  business  centers,  in  many  instances  to  the 
sacrifice  of  their  health  and  morals.  Because  of  the 
actual  scarcity  of  proper  low-priced  quarters,  the  misera- 
ble rookeries  continue  to  be  crowded,  in  many  instances 
to  double  their  statutory  capacity,  to  make  a  large 
collective  income  for  the  landlord."  It  puts  the  ques- 
tion, "  Has  it   ever  occurred  to  any  of  the  business  and 


i6 

employing  firms  that  they  cannot  retain  the  services  of 
skilled  workmen  at  the  same  rate  of  wages  as  the  same 
lines  of  trade  in  adjacent  cities,  simply  because  so  much 
more  money  is  required  for  rent  here,  than  in  other 
cities?" 

The  appalling  accounts  of  squalor  and  destitution  of 
some  districts  in  London  and  New  York,  and  the  horrors 
of  "  lodging  houses "  in  those  cities,  are  paralleled  by 
those  we  know  from  our  own  observation  to  exist  in 
Chicago,  and  they  cannot  be  suppressed  or  remedied 
until  some  means  are  provided  for  housing  the  wretched 
people  to  be  displaced. 

The  plans,  estimates  and  drawings  submitted  here- 
with, depart  somewhat  from  the  suggestions  in  the  report 
of  last  year,  in  obedience  to  the  drift  of  certain  criticisms 
and  expressed  opinions  on  the  subject.  One  set  is  for  a 
large  tenement  house  on  a  plan  different  from  those 
recently  erected  in  New  York,  adapted  to  our  particular 
necessities  as  to  distance  from  a  central  location  and  con- 
taining conveniences  for  lodgers  ;  the  others  are  for 
separate  tenements  or  single  houses  built  on  small  lots, 
further  removed  from  the  center  of  business,  the  idea 
being  to  allow  the  tenant  his  choice  of  the  mode  of  living, 
and  it  is  believed  that  there  will  be  many  advocates  of 
both  plans  of  housing  tenants.  In  the  latter  a  method 
for  the  purchase  of  the  lot  and  building  should  be  pro- 
vided for  those  who  desire  to  do  so.  One  of  the  reasons 
given  for  advocating  the  privilege  of  purchasing  the  pro- 
posed separate  dwellings  is  that  "  rent  is  the  great 
devourer  of  the  poor  man,"  and  that  whatever  facilities 
are  given  to  him  to  become  his  own  landlord  are  so  much 
to  his  gain  ;  the  advocates  of  the  other  mode  reason  that 
"  whatever  tends  to  reduce  rents  or  to  give  him  cleaner, 
healthier  or  more  comfortable  surroundings  for  the  same 
rent  he  is  paying  for  filthy,  unhealthy  and  uncomfortable 
tenements  and  damp  basements,  will  make  him  more 
contented,   improve  his   condition    and   save    money    for 


17 

him."  The  number  of  those  workmen  who  purchase  and 
occupy  property  of  their  own  is  not  a  large  proportion  of 
the  aggregate.  Probably  the  outcome  of  such  an  under- 
taking as  we  propose  would  be  that  in  many  instances  life 
in  the  tenement  would  be  but  the  period  of  transition  to 
the  detached  or  independent  dwelling,  for  if  the  latter 
can  be  purchased  at  a  price  and  on  terms  about  equiv- 
alent to  a  fair  rental,  the  natural  desire  for  possessing 
property  will  prompt  the  change.  In  such  a  case  the 
advocates  of  both  plans  will  have  been  satisfied.  As 
Chicago  becomes  older  and  the  population  more  fixed 
the  desire  for  permanent  homes  will  increase. 

The  suggestions  of  this  report  have  been  mainly  made 
from  an  economic  and  financial  standpoint,  as  the  pre- 
vious one  embodied  the  social  and  sanitary  aspect,  but 
we  cannot  forbear  remarking  that  the  scheme  or  plan  is 
one  that  appeals  to  the  noblest  impulse  of  human  nature, 
that  of  benefitting  our  fellow  men.  The  rich  men  of 
Chicago  are  numerous,  and  almost  all  of  them  have  made 
their  fortunes  here ;  some  of  them  have  belonged  to  the 
very  classes  which  would  be  benefitted  by  the  proposed 
association,  and  although  it  may  be  answered  that  they 
have  worked  out  their  prosperity  by  their  own  exertions 
and  that  the  same  course  is  open  to  all,  a  very  proper 
reply  will  be  that  all  the  conditions  of  capital  and  labor 
have  changed,  from  well  known  causes,  within  25  years. 
It  is,  besides,  impossible  that  all  should  accumulate 
wealth. 

We  urge  that  the  erection  of  such  buildings  will  pay 
not  only  a  "  philanthropic  compensation,"  but  will  be  a 
very  fair  business  investment.  What  better  use  can  be 
made  of  surplus  money?  It  will  pay  6  to  8  per  cent,  over 
a  sufficient  sinking  fund,  while  a  4  per  cent,  city  bond  sells 
at  a  premium ;  besides,  if  the  love  of  country  and  of  the 
great  city  which  you  have  erected  is  a  predominant  feel- 
ing in  your  political  nature,  can  you  not  perceive  that  by 
elevating  the  poorer  classes  and   improving   their   condi- 


i8 

tion  you  are  refining  their  political  and  moral  tastes  and 
habits  ?  Furnish  a  man  with  good  lodgings  and  surround- 
ings and  he  at  once  becomes  abetter  citizen.  Provide 
him  with  a  good  home  at  a  moderate  cost  and  he 
becomes  healthier  and  happier,  a  better  workman,  more 
contented  and  reliable,  a  saving  man  instead  of  a  spend- 
thrift ;  every  condition  of  his  existence  is  bettered.  The 
efforts  made  by  moral  reform  and  other  societies  for  the 
salvation  of  men  from  degradation,  poverty  and  vice  are 
worthy  of  the  commendation  of  all  well  disposed  citizens; 
no  friend  of  his  fellow-man  can  do  otherwise  than  bid 
them  "  God-speed,"  but  we  believe  that  one  of  the  best, 
perhaps  the  very  best  foundation  for  the  reclamation  of 
an  unfortunate  victim  of  inebrity  is  to  point  out  the 
attainment  of  a  better  mode  of  physical  existence,  and  if 
it  be  true  that  so  large  a  proportion  of  the  crimes  of  the 
day  are  caused  by  drink,  then  the  reason  for  indulgence 
will  be  greatly,  infinitely  lessened  by  the  betterment  of 
the  social  and  moral  condition  of  the  delinquent.  Does 
not  the  fact  that  men  are  forced  to  live  in  hovels  lead  to 
indulgence  in  strong  drink  in  many  of  the  cases  brought 
to  the  view  of  the  temperance  societies? 

We  recommend  that  the  Citizens  Association  shall  call 
a  meeting  of  as  many  as  possible  of  the  most  influential 
capitalists,  manufacturers  and  merchants  of  this  city,  at  an 
early  day  after  the  presidential  election,  and  lay  before 
them  such  facts  and  figures  as  are  at  their  command  from 
the  archives  of  this  committee  and  such  as  can  be  pro- 
cured meanwhile,  for  the  purpose  of  inducing  them  to 
form  an  association  for  the  improvement  of  the  condition 
of  working-men  by  the  erection  of  tenement  houses  and 
dwellings  of  the  most  improved  pattern  or  model  ;  that 
such  association  take  the  form  of  a  joint  stock  company 
for  monetary  investment,  with  provision  for  the  sale  of 
habitations  to  the  tenants  on  favorable  terms,  or  for  the 
sale  of  the  stock  in  small  amounts  as  a  means  of  invest- 
ment for  their  savings,  and  that  proper  precautions  be 
taken  to   prevent  the  misuse    of  the  property  for  merely 


19 

speculative  purposes.  To  such  a  body  of  men  as  the 
executive  committee  will,  undoubtedly,  present  the 
scheme,  no  advice  that  we  can  give  of  a  financial  nature 
will  be  acceptable,  nor  will  it  be  necessary  to  appeal  to 
their  sympathies  as  we  might  do,  by  drawing  the  contrast 
between  the  mode  of  living  of  employers  and  their  work- 
men. Our  duties  cease  with  the  compilation  of  the  inform- 
ation on  which  this  report  is  based  and  the  submission 
of  the  document. 

The  first  set  of  plans  presented  herewith  is  for  a  five 
story  building  with  cellar,  to  be  erected  on  the  rear  por- 
tion of  a  block  in  a  central  location,  the  front  of  which  is 
already  occupied  by  stores  or  other  buildings,  or  designed 
for  such;  the  length  is  125  feet,  by  50  feet  in  width  with 
a  yard  20  feet  wide  its  whole  length,  the  front  portion 
of  the  lot  being  assumed  as  90  to  100  feet  deep,  10  of 
which  is  left  as  open  space  between  the  rear  of  the  build- 
ings in  front  and  the  yard  above  described.  The  street 
for  the  proposed  building  is  the  present  alley  widened  as 
much  as  possible  under  circumstances  as  they  may  be 
found  to  exist ;  there  are  entrances  to  the  building,  also, 
by  narrow  passages  at  each  end  from  the  street  proper. 
There  are,  however,  a  number  of  40  feet  streets  in  certain 
parts  of  the  city,  the  property  adjoining  which  could  be 
had  for  the  purpose.  The  cellar  of  this  structure  will 
contain  the  water  closets,  bath  rooms  and  laundries;  the 
three  lower  floors,  each  nine  feet  high  in  the  clear,  will 
contain  24  quarters,  consisting  of  a  living  room,  a  bed- 
room, and  two  closets,  the  partitions  merely  of  flooring 
seven  feet  high,  and  12  quarters  (A.  B.  C.  D.)  in  front, 
with  the  same  number  of  rooms  and  closets  but  with 
real  partitions  reaching  to  the  ceiling  and  affording  more 
conveniences,  as  shown  in  the  plan ;  each  of  these  36 
quarters  would  accommodate  a  family,  with  this  proviso, 
for  the  sake  of  decency  and  morality,  which  are  but  too 
often  neglected  in  the  present  made  of  living,  that  all 
boys  beyond  a  certain  age,  must  take  a  lodging  in  the 
dormitory,  at  a  certain  especially    low   rate   per  week   or 


20 

inonth.  A  wide  hall  divides  each  of  these  floors  long-i- 
tudinally  and  contains  at  or  near  its  center  a  slop  sink 
and  an  iron  bowl  for  water.  The  two  upper  stories  are 
for  the  lodgment  of  single  men.  The  fourth  floor  to 
have  a  separate  room  fitted  with  washbasins  and  urinals, 
a  fair  room  for  social  gathering,  to  be  furnished  with 
books  and  newspapers,  and  a  number  of  small  and  large 
rooms  with  from  two  to  six  beds  in  each.  The  fifth  floor 
to  be  one  great  room  or  dormitory  in  which  are  to  be  set 
up,  as  closely  as  possible,  (but  never  one  above  another 
as  is  now  sometimes  practiced),  single  beds  of  good  con- 
struction, about  150  of  them,  so  that  each  lodger  will 
have  something  like  500  cubic  feet  of  breathing  space. 
The  construction  of  this  building  may  be  of  the 
utmost  simplicity,  but  it  should  be  of  fire  proof  material 
as  far  as  practicable  ;  the  stairs  should  be  of  iron  or  stone, 
partitions  and  furring  of  tile,  leaving  for  wood,  only  the 
joists,  flooring,  minor  partitions,  windows,  doors,  etc. 
Hall  partitions  would  contain  iron  posts  and  girders. 
Gas  fixtures  to  be  placed  only  in  the  corridors,  water 
closet  and  bath-rooms.  The  whole  establishment  should 
be  under  the  charge  of  a  competent,  honest  and  sober 
janitor.  It  would  partake  of  the  double  nature  of  a  lodg- 
ing house  for  men  and  a  tenement  house  for  families,  the 
latter  to  take  care  merely  of  their  own  apartments;  beds 
and  necessary  furniture  for  the  lodgers  would  be  furnished 
by  the  house  and  be  under  the  care  of  the  janitor.  Baths 
should  be  provided  with  hot  and  cold  water  at  a  cost  of 
about  five  cents. 

That  such  correct  and  perhaps  perfect  management 
as  is  desired  can  be  had,  is  evidenced  by  the  experience 
of  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  in  similar  enter- 
prises on  a  smaller  scale.  Large  establishments  of  the 
kind  are,  as  yet,  nowhere  to  be  found,  but  they  are  the 
most  urgent  necessity  o[  our  situation,  and  would  be  the 
means  of  raising  the  lower  grades  of  society  to  a  higher 
level  and  implanting  in  their  minds,  especially  those  of 
the  rising  generation,  a  higher  degree  of  self-esteem  and 


21 

morality;  they  are  mucli  more  needed  than  the  modest 
apartment  and  other  houses  hereinafter  recommended — 
they  are  tJie  want  of  the  present  age  and  generation. 
Their  occupancy  would  reach  down  to  the  necessities  of 
the  poorest  class  of  families  and  of  the  unmarried  work- 
ingmen,  all  of  whom  seek  quarters  in  some  central  local- 
ity, and  whose  wretched  present  condition  has  been  the 
subject  of  a  former  report,  in  which  we  viewed  them 
located  in  the  humblest  and  poorest  rookeries,  often  sev- 
eral families  in  a  single  room  of  the  most  abject  character; 
we  have  seen  single  men,  laborers  and  mechanics  crowded 
into  filthy  basements  filled  with  beds  as  closely  as  they 
could  be  placed  and  set  up  one  above  another  so  as  to 
leave  but  lOo  feet  or  less  of  breathing  space  for  each  indi- 
vidual in  a  damp,  ill-ventilated  room.  If  it  were  possible 
to  arrange  improved  quarters  for  the  better,  or  if  you 
please,  best  of  these  people,  the  worst  or  lowest  grade  of 
them  would  advance,  we  believe,  in  their  desire  of  better- 
ment by  the  example  of  those  who  went  out  before  them. 

Following  is  the  estimate  of  revenue  or  income  and 
of  the  expenses  of  such  an  establishment : 

INXOME   OR    REVENUE. 

12  Tenements,  A,  B,  C,  D  at  $120  per  year. .  .  .$1,440  00 

6  "  at  the  ends  at  $96  "         57600 

18  Central  or  inner  tenements  $84         "        ....    1,512  00 

$3,528  00 
The  proceeds  of  the  lodging  departments  cannot 

be  so  readily  estimated.  While  the  full  and 
continuous  use  of  the  same  at  12^  cents 
per  bed,  per  night,  in  the  loft,  and  25  cents 
per  bed,  per  night,  in  the  rooms  on  the 
fourth  floor  would  yield  about  $10,000  per 
annum  it  is  probably  not  safe  to  calcu- 
late, beyond  the  expenses  for  janitor  and 
for  help,  interest  and  wear  and  tear  of 
material  and  utensils,  more  than 2,500  00 

$6,028  00 


22 

The  cost  of  the  building  would  not  exceed.  .  .  .$40,000  00 
And   the  rear  end   of  such   a  lot  as  we   hav^e 

proposed 10,000  00 

$50,000  00 

Interest  on  $50,000.00  at  6  per  cent.  » $3,000  00 

Taxes,  insurance,  repairs  and  sinking  fund.  .  .  .    1,700  00 

$4,700  00 
Showing  a  probable  profit  of $1,328  OO 

The  second  sketch  represents  a  building  16^  feet 
front  by  57  feet  deep,  three  stories  high,  with  a  flat  on 
each  floor,  to  be  placed  on  a  lot  124  feet  deep  somewhat 
removed  from  the  centre  of  business,  the  property  taken 
for  this  example  being  bounded  by  Lincoln,  14th,  Wood 
and  15th  Streets.  It  contains  on  each  floor  a  sitting  room 
or  parlor,  dining  room,  kitchen,  bath  room,  closets  and 
skylight  for  ventilation  etc.;  it  has  no  cellar  and  could 
be  built  in   a  substantial  manner,  with  all  its  accessories 

and  conveniences  for $3, 200  00 

The  lot  in  that  locality  would  cost,  16^x124.  . .         350  00 

$3,550  00 
CHARGES. 

Interest  on  cost  at  6  per  cent $213  00 

Taxes  and  insurance  would  not  exceed 75  00 

Administration,  repairs  and  sinking  fund 112  00 

S400  00 
The  three  tenements  would  readily  rent  for  $18, 

$17  and  $15  per  month $600  00 

Showing  a  profit  of 200  00 

The  third  plan  is  for  a  two  story  dwelling  16^x32 
feet,  containing  four  rooms  below  and  three  above  with 
ample  conveniences;  it  is  designed  for  occupancy  of  a  lot 
in  the  same  district  as  the  one  just  described  or  on  pro- 
perty of  similar  value  of  the  dimensions  of  16^x75  feet 
and  is  the  counterpart  of  those  houses  in  Philadelphia  to 
which  we  have  referred,  though  of  better  construction. 


23 

The  cost  of  the  building  all  complete  would  be.   $i,ooo  oo 
And  of  the  lot  about 230  00 

$1,230  00 

6  per  cent,  interest  on  that  amount  is $74  00 

Taxes  and  insurance 25  00 

Administration,  repairs  and  sinking  fund 51  00 

$150  00 
It  is  designed  for  a  family  and  would  rent  for  $15 

to  $  1 8  per  month,  say $200  00 

Profit 50  00 

The  fourth  is  for  a  tenement  house  proper  on  ivhat  we 
conceive  to  be  the  most  economical  plan  for  our  city, 
under  all  the  circumstances  in  which  we  are  placed  and 
briefly  alluded  to  before.  It  is  designed  for  a  two  story 
house  on  a  lot  24x124  feet;  the  dimensions  are  20x70 
feet,  two  tenements  on  each  floor ;  the  entrance  at  the 
side  with  the  shelter  over  it;  one  tenement  looking  upon 
the  street  and  the  other  upon  a  yard  54  feet  deep.  Each 
tenement  has  a  kitchen,  a  living  room,  and  two  bed-rooms 
with  necessary  closets  and  other  appurtenances.  This  is  the 
tenement  house  designed  for  that  class  who  can  afford  to 
pay  but  about  $10  per  month  and  is  the  most  necessary 
of  all  strictly  tenement  honses,  being  designed  for  such 
a  large  class. 


&^ 


Its  cost  would  be $2,700  oo 

The  lot 500  00 

$3,200  00 

Interest  on  $3,200  at  6  per  cent ....    $192  00 

Taxes  and  insurance 70  00 

Administration,  repairs  and  sinking  fund 108  00 

$370  00 

It  would  rent  very  readly  for  $480  to 500  00 

Profit,  $110  to    13000 


24 

Of  course  the  cost  of  the  lots  would  vary  with  the 
locality ;  we  have  selected  for  our  examples  what  may  be 
termed  high  priced  property  for  such  a  purpose,  but  we 
have  estimates  of  lots  valued  at  less  than  one-half  the 
price  of  these. 

We  have  thus  given  you  our  ideas  of  the  present 
wants  and  requirements  of  the  working  people  of  Chicago 
with  regard  to  tenement  and  lodging  houses  and  have 
only  to  add  our  belief  that  the  enormous  block  structures 
which  have  been  one  of  the  features  of  the  movement  in 
New  York  are  not  yet  needed  here ;  should,  however, 
your  committee  deem  it  necessary  or  proper,  we  can, 
without  much  trouble,  furnish  plans  and  estimates  for 
such  blocks  from  information  before  us. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

FREDERICK   BAUMANN, 
ARTHUR   C.  DUCAT, 
HENRY  WALLER,  JR. 

Committee  on  Tenement  Houses,  Citizens' Assoeiation. 

Chicago,  September,  1884. 


REPORT  OF  THE  COiVIMITrEES 


ON 


Bridges  and  Street  Railways 


OF    TflE 


CITIZENS'  SSSOCIflTION 


OF  CHICAGO. 


SEPTEMBER,  18S4. 


With  an  appendix  giving  the  report  of  april,  1880,  accompanied 

BY  diagram  of  proposed  DOUBLE-WIDTH  BRIDGE. 


CHICAGO: 
Geo.  K.  Hazlitt  &  Co.,  Printers,  172  and  174  Soutu  Clark  Street. 

1884. 


I! 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE  ON 

BRIDGES  AND  STREET  RAILWAYS. 


To  the  Executive  Coviniittee  of  the  Citizens'  AssociatioJi  of 
Chicago. 

The  Undersigned  Committee  on  Street  Railways  and 
Bridges,  submit  the  following  report : 

There  is  probably  no  subject  of  greater  public  interest 
to  the  people  of  Chicago,  than  the  one  embraced  in  the 
title  of  this  committee.  Our  street  railway  and  bridge 
traffic,  already  enormous,  is  increasing  very  rapidly,  and 
the  necessity  for  additional  accommodations  and  facilities 
becomes  daily  more  apparent.  The  obstructions  to  street 
traffic  caused  by  the  bridges,  has  also  become  a  question 
of  momentous,  if  not  of  paramount  importance  to  the 
business  interests  of  the  city. 

Permission  has  already  been  accorded  by  the  City 
Council  to  one  or  more  new  lines  of  street  railway,  and 
projects  for  other  new  main  and  cross-lines  are  numerous. 
The  time  has  arrived  in  the  history  of  the  city  when 
opposition  to  new  lines  is  not  only  useless,  but  wrong  in 
principle,  provided  the  statute  in  regard  to  street  front- 
age is  respected,  and  the  public  receive  due  and  adequate 
returns  in  comtort  and  convenience,  for  the  valuable 
privileges  granted,  We  are  of  the  opinion  that,  other 
things  being  equal,  and  only  when  other  things  are  equal, 
preference  should  be  given  to  the  old  and  existing  com- 
panies, provided  the  permission  for  their  new  lines  is 
hedged  about  with  all  the  restrictions  which  the  public 


demands,  and  which  the  value  of  their  privileges  war- 
rants. The  reason  for  this  is  evident.  They  can,  of 
course,  give  greater  accommodations  to  passengers  by 
transfer  or  otherwise  than  new  organizations,  which  must 
necessarily  have  fewer  lines  and  connections. 

But  it  is  evident  that  an  entirely  new  system  in  the 
management  of  Chicago  Street  Railways  is  needed,  and 
that  the  change  must  be  made  very  early  in  their  future 
history.  The  plan  on  which  they  have  been  heretofore 
operated,  is  behind  the  present  stage  of  the  city's  pro- 
gress, although  suitable  to  its  condition  fifteen  or  twenty 
years  ago.  Passengers  should  be  able  to  go  to  within 
a  few  blocks  of  any  given  point  by  a  system  of  transfers, 
and  not  be  compelled,  as  at  present,  in  many  instances, 
to  return  the  greater  part  of  the  distance  and  make  a 
new  trip.  For  instance,  a  line  should  run  the  whole 
length  of  Halsted  Street,  from  end  to  end ;  another 
should  take  in  all  the  R.  R.  passenger  depots  without 
change  of  cars,  which  can  be  done  with  little  trouble  and 
great  convenience;  and  there  should  be  several  lines  run- 
ning from  the  west  side  to  State  Street  at  points  where 
the  passengers  could  take  the  cars  of  that  line  either 
North  or  South  as  desired.  Through  union-lines  should 
be  established  from  22nd  Street  to  Union  Park  and  to 
Lincoln  Park,  and  from  Lincoln  Park  to  Union  Park, 
and  from  Lincoln  Park  to  Humboldt  Park,  without  change 
of  cars,  and  at  one  fare  for  each  trip. 

We  do  not  suggest  that  transfers  from  one  distinct 
and  separate  line  to  another  should  always  be  made 
without  additional  charge,  or  for  one  fare,  (although  a 
joint  line  was  at  one  time,  run  from  22nd  Street  to  Ash- 
land Avenue,  with  great  profit  and  convenience),  but  we 
do  suggest  that  when  the  passenger  marks  out  his  route 
at  the  outset  of  his  trip,  he  should  receive  a  ticket,  good 
for  that  day  only,  for  a  connecting  line,  at  a  charge  of  one 
cent  additional.     The  three  companies,  in  a  word,  should 


be  worked  in  harmony,  should  exchange  passengers,  and 
should  in  some  way  combine  their  systems  for  the  con- 
venience of  the  public.  If  a  passenger,  for  instance, 
wishes  to  go  from  12th  Street  and  Ashland  Avenue  to 
Cottage  Grove  Avenue  and  22nd  Street,  he  ought  to  be 
able  to  do  so  by  going  directly  to  State  Street  and  thence 
to  his  destination  instead  of  going  around  by  way  of 
Randolph  and  State  Streets,  and  the  fare  should  be  but 
one  cent  extra. 

Nearly  every  condition  under  which  the  present  lines 
were  located,  years  ago,  is  changed,  and  the  management 
of  the  lines  should  be  changed  to  meet  those  conditions 
and  the  public  requirements. 

The  street  railway  companies  have  shown  a  disposition 
to  provide  for  the  public  convenience  for  a  year  past,  to 
a  greater  degree  than  heretofore,  by  a  more  rigid  enforce- 
ment of  their  own  rules,  and  by  compliance  with  sug- 
gestions made  to  them  by  us  and  probably  others.  An 
examination  undertaken  by  request,  showed  to  us  that 
some  of  the  things  complained  of,  can  be  remedied  if  the 
passengers  themselves  will  but  send  their  complaints  to 
the  officers  of  the  companies.  A  list  of  grievances  which 
we  collected  and  presented  to  one  of  the  managers  was 
found  to  contain  many  violations  of  their  own  rules, 
which  they  were  quite  ready  to  correct  on  specification. 
If  there  be  any  delicacy  on  the  part  of  our  members  in 
making  such  complaints  directly  to  the  company,  they 
can  send  to  the  Secretary  of  our  association,  statements 
of  facts  authenticated  by  their  signatures,  which  will  not 
be  divulged  without  their  consent,  and  we  will  sec  to  it 
that  the  complaints  are  properly  examined  and  the 
remedy  applied.  This  of  course,  is  in  regard  to  defects 
in  the  car  service. 


6 

There  are  other  defects  in  the  present  system  which 
are  of  great  importance  and  should  be  remedied  at  once, 
or  as  soon  as  practicable. 

1.  The  absence  of  proper  terminal  facilities.  For  a 
long  period  last  winter,  passengers  of  some  of  the  lines 
were  landed  in  slush,  water  and  mud  holes  at  the  end  of 
their  journey.  The  cars  too  were  often  started  back,  not 
only  before  passengers  were  on  board  for  the  return  trip, 
but  before  passengers  had  alighted.  It  is  no  answer  to 
say  that  it  is  not  the  business  of  the  company  to  keep 
the  streets  clean  and  the  pavement  in  good  condition. 
It  is  the  railway  company's  duty,  and  it  should  be  for 
their  interest,  to  have  the  access  to  their  cars  kept  clean, 
and  they  should  have  men  enough  to  do  this,  and  to 
attend  to  the  needs  of  the  passengers  at  their  termini. 

2.  The  practice  of  stopping  cars  so  that  women  and 
others  have  to  wade  in  mud  to  reach  the  cross-walk. 
This  occurs  most  frequently  on  the  cable  line,  owing  to 
there  being  three  or  more  cars,  at  times,  in  the  train,  but 
it  can  be  easily  remedied  by  bringing  the  connected  ends 
of  the  second  and  third  cars  to  the  cross-walk  and  notify- 
ing the  passengers  in  one  car  to  get  out  at  the  rear,  and 
those  in  the  other  car  at  the  front.  The  men  in  the 
grip-car  can  take  care  of  themselves  better  than  the  ladies 
in  the  rear  cars.  The  Superintendent  has  promised  to 
practice  this  simple  plan,  in  which  there  is  nothing  con- 
trary to  city  ordinance. 

3.  The  mode  of  paving  practiced  by  the  railway  com- 
panies, by  which  the  outer  stones  are  higher  than  the 
adjoining  city  pavement,  making  an  awkward  rut  which 
soon  becomes  greater,  to  the  permanent  defacement  of 
the  street.  This  is  unnecessary,  and  should  not  be  per- 
mitted. 


4-  Worst  of  all,  is  the  practice  of  throwins^  the  snow 
from  the  tracks  on  each  side,  causing  immense  trouble 
and  damage,  and  blocking  up  the  public  thoroughfare. 
To  remove  the  snow  at  night  in  cars  over  their  own 
tracks  and  dump  it  upon  the  nearest  vacant  lot,  where  it 
can  do  no  damage,  is  such  a  simple  matter  that  if  not 
put  into  practice  during  the  coming  winter  it  will  be 
well  to  call  into  exercise  the  legal  rights  of  the  public,  to 
prevent  the  obstruction  of  the  streets  from  the  continu- 
ance of  the  present  absurd  and  illegal  method,  which 
causes  at  times,  such  an  obstruction  as  to  render  the  rest 
of  the  street  totally  impassable,  and  at  all  times  adds  to 
the  embarrassment  of  the  mercantile  and  other  traffic. 

5.  A  system  of  short  lines  should  be  instituted  on  all 
the  roads,  for  a  few  hours  at  least,  morning  and  evening ; 
to  and  from  Chicago  Avenue  in  the  North  Division,  22nd 
Street  in  the  South,  and  Halsted  Street  in  the  West. 

6.  Overcrowding  of  cars  at  certain  hours.  This  is  a 
practice  which  is  not  peculiar  to  this  city,  but  exists  in 
every  large  American  city,  we  believe,  without  a  single 
exception.  Until  the  public  demands  and  considers  it 
just  that  some  ordinance  be  passed  regulating  the  num- 
ber of  passengers  allowed  on  each  car,  we  can  suggest  no 
remedy  which  will  prove  thoroughly  efficient,  for  very 
obvious  reasons.  Fortunately,  this  crowding  is  avoided 
at  those  times  when  the  cars  are  mostly  occupied  by 
women,  from  10  A.  M.  to  3  P.  M.  We  can  suggest  at 
present  only  the  system  of  short  lines  given  above,  and 
of  course  more  cars  between  6.30  A.  M.  to  9  A.  M.,  and 
from   5   P.  M.  to  7  P.  M. 

RIVER   TRAFFIC. 

The  river  traffic  has  not  very  much  increased  the  bridge 
detention,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  appended  tables,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  more  steam  vessels  are  used  on  the  lake, 


and  that  the  lumber  business  is  conducted  to  some  extent 
on  a  different  plan,  including  a  partial  change  of  loca- 
tion. The  conviction  that  what  is  called  Chicago  River 
has  seen  its  most  serviceable  days,  in  a  commercial  sense, 
is  fast  gaining  ground,  even  among  those  most  interested 
in  its  navigation,  while  the  mass  of  intelligent  citizens 
are  outspoken  and  impatient  for  the  inauguration  of  a 
system  whereby  the  bridges  may  become  fixed  and  per- 
manent. But  as  a  period  of  perhaps  ten  years  must 
elapse  before  such  a  consummation  can  be  reached,  many 
patient  and  forbearing  qualities  will  have  to  be  exercised 
until  the  problem  works  itself  out.  It  is  idle  to  attempt 
a  forcible  and  premature  solution  of  it  by  legislation,  in 
order  to  bring  it  about  within  a  short  fixed  period. 
Commercial  instinct  is  rarely  mistaken  in  its  conclusions 
when  exercised  with  judgment  and  discretion.  Some 
general  plan  for  the  change  may  be  found  when  the  pro- 
per time  arrives  ;  already  the  vast  lumber  trade  perceives 
the  necessity  for  such  change  ;  the  grain  warehouse  men 
are  casting  their  eyes  toward  the  lake  shore,  looking 
for  the  site  of  an  outer  harbor  ;  and  the  other  interests 
are  by  no  means  asleep. 

We  shall  not  have  to  wait  long  to  see  the  realization 
of  our  wishes,  when  the  traffic  of  the  river  shall  be  con- 
ducted by  unmasted  barges,  its  banks  lined  with  mer- 
cantile warehouses  and  railway  freight  depots,  to  and 
from  which  car  loads  of  merchandise  will  be  transported 
on  convenient  floats  with  car  tracks  and  other  appliances 
for  rapid  transfer,  and  the  river  shall  become  the  best 
street  in  the  city  for  the  movement  of  heavy  goods.  We 
shall  then  see  a  "  forest  of  masts  "  along  our  lake  front, 
relieved  by  the  grain  warehouses,  and  piles  of  lumber 
and  coal  belonging  to  those  departments  of  our  enor- 
mous commerce — if  the  latter  do  not  prefer,  as  is  most 
likely,  the  Calumet  project. 


9 

The  worst  difficulty  attending  the  present  bridge 
system  is  not  the  time  required  for  the  passage  of  vessels, 
but  that  which  occurs  in  the  streets  adjoining  the  river 
and  leading  to  the  bridges,  and  any  observer  can  readily 
see  that  the  present  year  has  developed  it  to  an  extraor- 
dinary degree.  We  have  taken  observations  and  com- 
piled figures  which  are  sufficient  to  convince  the  most 
reluctant  that  the  present  system  cannot  be  tolerated  for 
many  years  longer.  Even  were  there  no  disturbance  by 
drawing  the  bridges,  the  situation  is  an  unfavorable  one  ; 
but  when  we  consider  that  nearly  the  whole  street  traffic 
of  the  city  is,  at  times,  crowded  into  avenues  crossing 
each  other  at  right  angles,  in  the  comparatively  small 
space  bounded  by  Michigan  Avenue,  Monroe,  Halsted 
and  Kinzie  Streets  ;  and  that  an  interruption  occurs  at 
times  every  ten  minutes  by  some  open  bridge,  which 
paralyzes  every  motion  of  the  immense  crowd  and 
endangers  property  and  life  from  obvious  causes,  we  can 
well  say  that  a  remedy  must  be  found.  As  that  remedy 
cannot,  for  some  time,  be  found  in  making  the  bridges 
permanent,  some  different  regulations  for  river  traffic 
must  be  temporarily  employed.  .  Police  vigilance  will 
help  to  some  extent  if  we  get  more  policemen,  and  the 
repair  and  lighting  of  the  tunnels  will  do  good  ;  but 
there  must  be  efficient  immediate  relief  and  a  thorough 
future  change,  or  the  business  of  Chicago  will  soon  reflect 
the  evil  in  a  very  undesirable  way. 

Recent  decisions  in  regard  to  the  jurisdiction  over 
Chicago  River,  and  the  right  of  the  city  council  to  allow 
railway  bridges,  have  awakened  the  public  to  the  para- 
mount importance  of  the  whole  question,  and  it  appears 
as  if  the  navigators  will  not  be  slow  to  accept  the  inevita- 
ble ;  but  they  must  not  be  hurried  too  fast. 

Projects  for  new  bridges  are  before  the  public,  and 
new  bridges  must  be  had  ;  and   it  is  to  be  hoped  that  at 


10 

least  three  will  be  kept  clear  from  railway  tracks,  so  as  tO' 
accommodate  a  class  of  travel — light  carriages,  buggies, 
etc. — which  fare  badly  when  mingled  with  trucks,  street 
cars,  omnibuses  and  the  like.  All  bridges  built  in  the 
future  should  have  two  double  tracks  on  each 'side,  and 
wide  footways,  and  be  turned  by  steam  or  hydraulic 
power.  That  noble  structure,  the  Rush  Street  bridge, 
recently  opened,  deserves  all  the  praise  it  has  received 
for  inception,  design  and  construction.  We  have  before 
us  the  report  of  your  Committee  on  Bridges,  published 
April  2,  1880,  accompanied  by  a  plan  or  design  for  a  new 
bridge  to  replace  the  one  at  Lake  Street,  then  in  bad 
condition  ;  the  drawings  were  made  under  the  direction 
of  that  committee,  and  with  the  application  of  steam 
power,  then  recommended  by  them,  are  so  exactly  like 
the  one  recently  erected  at  Rush  Street  that  we  believe 
the  Citizens'  Association  are  fairly  entitled  to  the  origi- 
nation of  the  plan  adopted.* 

Before  we  leave  the  subject  we  would  call  attention  to 
the  repeated  complaints  of  the  incapacity  and  unaccom- 
modating ways  of  bridge  tenders,  in  causing  unnecessary 
delay  to  vehicles  and  pedestrians,  by  drawing  the  bridge 
a  minute  or  more  before  it  is  necessary  to  allow  a  vessel 
to  pass,  or  by  keeping  it  open  a  few  minutes  when  a 
distant  whistle  is  heard,  rather  than  to  take  pains  to 
reheve  a  crowd  by  closing  it'  and  opening  it  again  ;  thus 
running  the  bridge  in  the  interest  of  the  navigators 
instead  of  the  people  who  need  the  accommodation  most. 
We  have  made  efforts  to  remedy  this,  but  with  slight 
success. 

Our  ideas  may  be  summarized  as  follows:  We  would 
offer  no  opposition  to  the  construction  of  new  railway 
lines,  with  a  preference  for  old  companies,  other  things 
being  equal,  under  such  restrictions  as  experience  and 

*  See  Appendix. 


11 

the  wants  of  the  community  demand  ;  would  urge  a 
complete  revision  of  the  system  of  operating  them,  with 
a  view  of  increasing  their  usefulness  ;  recommend  in- 
creased police  service  and  strict  regulations  for  street 
traffic ;  good  temper  and  forbearance  on  the  part  of 
drivers  and  pedestrians  ;  new  regulations  for  bridge  ser- 
vice ;  and  finally,  more  and  better  bridges  of  the  Rush 
Street  type,  and  a  gradual  preparation  for  the  inevitable 
time  when  all  bridges  shall  become  fixed  and  per- 
manent. 

The  ordinance  with  regard  to  one-horse  cabs,  which 
was  referred  to  us,  has  had  attention,  and  the  desired 
amendment  is  before  the  Council.  The  introduction  of 
these  convenient  vehicles  supplies  a  long  felt  want,  and 
their  business  will  rapidly  increase. 

Following  are  observations  taken  at  the  bridges  and  in 
the  streets  : 

CLARK   STREET   BRIDGE. 

Tuesday,  Sept.  9,  1884,  between  the  hours  of  6  a.  m. 
and  7  p.  m.,  very  warm  and  clear  weather.     Going  north: 

Pedestrians 8,377 

Horse-cars 573 

Other  vehicles 1,646 

Bridge  open,   times 34 

Vessels  passed,  steam 10 

sail 44 


(t  II 


Going  south : 

Pedestrians 9.990 

Horse-cars 59° 

Other  vehicles  .  .' i,432 


12 

The  number  of  persons  in  horse-cars  is  estimated  at 
34,890,  and  on  other  vehicles  6,150,  making  a  total  of 
59,400  persons  passing  over  that  bridge  during  those 
hours.  The  greatest  number  of  pedestrians  detained, 
going  north  was  123  at  4:57  p.  m.,  at  which  time  the 
bridge  was  open  9  minutes,  and  at  the  same  time  there 
were  detained  going  north,  7  street-cars  and  28  other 
vehicles.  The  greatest  number  of  pedestrians  detained 
going  south,  was  175  at  10:20  a.  m.;  time  of  detention 
3^  minutes;  greatest  number  of  vehicles  detained,  8  street 
cars  and  22  others  at  8:35  a.  m.;  detention,  3^  minutes. 
Average  detention  at  other  timics  during  the  day,  74  ped- 
estrians and  24  vehicles,  on  both  sides  of  the  river.  Aver- 
age time  of  drawing  or  opening  the  bridge,  4  minutes. 

MADISON   STREET   BRIDGE. 

Wednesday,  Sept.  10,  1884,  between  the  same  hours  as 
at  Clark  street ;  warm  and  clear  weather.     Going  west  : 

Pedestrians 9-530 

Horse-cars 881 

Other  vehicles 1,671 

Bridge  open,  times 33 

Vessels  passed,  steam 23 

sail 22 

Going  east : 

Pedestrians 10,825 

Horse-cars 900 

Other  vehicles i  ,3 54 

Number  of  persons  in  horse-cars,  estimated  at  53,430, 
and  on  other  vehicles,  at  6,050;  total,  79,835.  The  great- 
est number  of  pedestrians  detained,  going  West,  was  60  at 


13 

8:32  a.  m.;  time  of  detention,  6y^  minutes;  the  greatest 
number  of  vehicles  detained  going  west,  was  40,  of  which 
7  were  street-cars  at  5:27  p.  m.;  time  of  detention,  4^ 
minutes.  Going  East,  the  greatest  detention  of  pedes- 
trians was  200  at  8:30  a.  m.,  and  of  vehicles  33,  of  which 
II  were  street-cars;  the  detention  being  6yi  minutes; 
average  detention  at  other  times  during  the  day  99 
pedestrians  and  26  vehicles  of  all  kinds  on  both  sides ; 
average  detention,  4  minutes. 

RUSH   STREET   BRIDGE. 

Friday,  Sept.  12,  1S84,  between  the  hours  of  6  a.  m.  and 
and  5:12  p.  m.,  at  which  hour  the  bridge  was  drawn  to  re- 
pair a  slight  damage  and  did  not  open  for  traffic  of  teams 
until  after  6  p.  m.     Weather,  cool  and  clear.     Going  north: 

Pedestrians 2,688 

Vehicles 2,331 

Bridge  open,  times 43 

Vessels  passed,  steam 22 

"        sail 47 


(( 


Goinsf  South : 


't> 


Pedestrians 2,830 

Vehicles i  ,893 

The  greatest  detention  going  North,  was  at  8:53  a.  m. 
for  8^  minutes,  by  which  45  pedestrians  and  55  vehicles 
were  detained  ;  and  the  street  cleared  in  two  minutes 
after  the  bridge  closed ;  the  greatest  detention  going 
south,  was  at  7  p.  m.,  for  9  minutes,  by  which  50  pedes- 
trians and  33  teams  were  detained,  and  the  street  cleared 
in  one  minute  and  a  half.     On  another  occasion  the  bridge 


14 

was  drawn  three  times  during  ten  and  a  half  minutes,  and 
ten  teams  crossed  on  each  occasion  of  closing  it,  after  the 
vessel  had  passed.  The  detention  at  other  times  than 
those  noted  averaged  31^  minutes,  and  the  number  of 
teams  detained  averaged  22.  The  above  accounts  show 
that  the  river  -traffic  was  very  light  on  the  first  two  days 
of  the  observations,  and  that  the  Rush  Street  bridge 
performs  all  the  functions  and  duties  required  of  it  to 
the  satisfaction  of  its  admirers  ;  its  capacity  was  by  no 
means  tested  at  any  time  ;  it  can  take  all  the  traffic  that 
the  adjoining  streets  are  likely  to  give  it. 

Observations  taken  as  to  the  total  detention  of  vehi- 
cles, including  the  cross  streets,  from  the  closing  of  the 
bridges,  are  not  so  satisfactory  as  those  given  above. 
One  of  the  most  remarkable  was  that  of  118  vehicles  de- 
tained in  Clark  Street  and  the  streets  adjoining,  caused  by 
the  opening  of  that  bridge  for  three  minutes;  in  this  case 
the  last  team  did  not  get  upon  the  bridge  until  twenty 
minutes  from  the  time  the  bridge  closed  ;  this  was  a  bad 
blockade,  but  not  so  bad  as  one  at  Randolph  Street 
bridge,  where  41  street  cars  and  175  other  vehicles  were 
involved  for  twenty  minutes,  when  the  bridge  was  drawn 
but  six  minutes  ;  these  two  blockades  were  on  both  sides 
of  the  river.  In  another  case  a  detention  of  50  vehicles 
occurred  in  East  Madison  Street  and  those  adjoining  it, 
while  the  bridge  was  drawn  three  minutes,  the  last  vehi- 
cle observed  getting  on  to  the  bridge  in  six  minutes. 

As  nearly  as  we  can  make  out,  the  average  time  of 
drawing  the  bridges,  except  Rush  Street,  is  four 
minutes  ;  the  average  number  of  vehicles  detained  from 
Adams  Street  to  State  Street,  on  the  three  sides  of  the 
river,  including  all  that  are  stopped  in  the  adjoining 
streets,  is  about  500  for  each  time  the  bridges  are 
drawn,  and  the  time  of  clearance,  so  that  the  stoppage  or 


15 

blockade  is  entirely  broken,  is  six  minutes.  Blockades 
at  individual  bridges  are,  at  times,  of  much  greater 
magnitude  than  the  average.  But  this  will  not  apply  to 
the  Rush  Street  bridge,  as  will  be  seen  above.  The  ob- 
servations are  precise  enough  to  show  that  the  stoppage 
of  vehicles  for  all  purposes,  owing  to  the  bridges,  is  at 
least  17,000  per  day  in  the  district  named  above,  and  for 
an  average  of  six  minutes,  while  at  times  it  amounts  to  a 
much  greater  number. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

Edwin  Lee  Brown, 
Owen  F.  Aldis, 
Christoph  Hotz, 
W.  O.  Carpenter, 

Committee. 

Chicago,  Sept.  26,  1884. 


APPENDIX. 


REPORT  ON  BRIDGES,   t88o. 


To  the  Exeaitivc   Committee  of  the  Citizens'  Association 
of  Chicago: 

The  committee  to  which  was  referred  the  subject  of 
bridges,  with  directions  to  consider  and  report  if  any 
beneficial  modifications  in  the  present  system  of  this  city 
can  be  recommended,  submit  the  following  report : 

That  the  present  means  of  communication  between  the 
three  natural  divisions  of  the  city  by  swinging  bridges 
will  be  the  principal  one  in  practice  for  many  years  to 
come  is  self-evident,  as  the  tunnels  are  unfrequented  and 
unpopular,  and  in  many  respects  objectionable;  and  pro- 
jects for  an  outer  harbor  and  disuse  of  the  river  for  large 
or  masted  vessels  are,  though  not  by  any  means  visionary 
or  impracticable,  from  the  very  nature  of  things  deferred 
to  a  later  period  in  the  future  history  of  our  city. 

We  shall,  therefore,  confine  our  report  to  the  consider- 
ation of  evils  consequent  on  the  bridge  system  and  to 
some  suggestions  for  their  abatement.     These  are : 

1.  Liability  to  accident. 

2.  Overcrowding. 

3.  Delay  and  detentions  consequent  upon  opening  or 
drawing  the  bridges. 

We  find  that  the  number  of  accidents  at  the  bridges  is 
surprisingly  small,  and  those  reported  are  caused  mainly 
by  the  wilful  carelessness  of  those  whose  impatience  or 
eagerness  to  get  on  or  off  the  bridge  induces  them  to 
take  an  unnecessary  or  foolish  risk.  So  small  is  the  num- 
ber of  accidents  in  the  daytime  that  we  cannot  recom- 
mend, but  rather  deprecate,  the  establishment  of  gates 
or  similar  structures  as  a  preventive  of  accident,  these 
unsightly  structures  being,  in  our  judgment,  entirely 
useless.     At  night,  however,  we  think  it  would  be  well  to 


18 

have  very  clear  lights  so  displa)'ed  that  no  mistake  as  to 
the  bridge  being  drawn  or  closed  could  be  made  by  any 
intelligent  person — a  fixed  light  on  both  abutments  with 
good  reflectors  toward  and  lighting  the  draw — then  if 
the  sides  of  the  girders  are  painted  a  light  color,  the  draw 
will  always  be  a  conspicuous  object  when  open,  and  pre- 
vent danger  of  accident  from  the  land  side,  and  will 
assist  pilots  in  understanding  the  true  position  of  the 
draw.  The  red  light  at  night  as  a  substitute  for  the  ball 
in  the  day-time  should  be  continued. 

Overcrowding  can  not  be  avoided  so  long  as  a  prefer- 
ence is  given  to  certain  bridges  (as  it  always  will  be)  and 
the  vehicles  accumulate,  as  they  do,  in  a  very  few 
minutes  in  consecjuence  of  the  bridge  being  drawn  for  a 
passing  vessel.  But  we  are  of  opinion  that  it  can  be 
remedied  to  such  an  extent  as  to,  almost,  do  away  with 
its  inconveniences  for  the  present  at  least,  by  widening 
the  bridges  twenty  feet,  putting  eight  feet  additional 
width  into  each  of  the  driveways,  and  two  feet  into  each 
of  the  foot  pathways,  so  as  to  enable  double  the  number 
of  teams  to  enter  upon  the  bridge  at  the  same  time. 
This  can  be  done  in  all,  or  nearly  all,  cases  without  inter- 
fering with  the  streets,  which  are  of  sufficient  width  to 
accommodate  the  increased  dimensions  of  the  enlarged 
bridge,  but  it  would  necessitate  the  widening  of  the  river 
on  each  side  ten  feet,  so  as  not  to  contract  the  passage 
for  vessels;  the  increased  width,  however,  could  in  most 
cases  be  taken  from  the  approach,  and  where  it  could 
not,  either  the  bridge  would  not  require  widening,  or  it 
would  be  a  proper  thing  to  do — to  widen  the  river. 

The  delay  and  detention  consequent  upon  opening  the 
bridges  can  be  obviated  to  a  great  extent  by  the  use  of 
hydraulic  or  steam  power  for  the  purpose;  if  the  former 
were  used  there  need  be  no  greater  annual  expense  than 
now,  and  the  service  would  be  much  better  performed. 
The  bridge-tender,  in  that  case,  should  occupy  a  deck  on 
top,  where  he  could  judge,  more  accurately  than  is  possi- 
ble below,  the  distance  and  time  required  for  a  vessel ; 
the  time  required  for  opening  and  closing  would  be  so 
short,  if  the  motive  power  were  such  as  suggested,  that 
in  ordinary  cases  the  bridge  could  be  swung  after  a  tow 
or  propeller  had  passed  half  the  distance  from  the  nearest 
bridge,  and  it  could  be  swung  back  "  in  her  wake,"  as  the 
most  perfect  control  of  the  swinging   structure  could   be 


1!» 

had  by  the  use  of  an  instrument  no  larger  than  a  hand- 
brake. Your  committee  are  of  the  opinion  that  more 
than  half  the  time  consumed  in  swinging  the  bridges  could 
thus  be  saved,  and  that  the  number  of  men  required  for 
the  service  would  be  no  greater  than  at  present.  Taken 
in  connection  with  the  increased  width  proposed,  this 
plan  would  so  operate  that  the  bridges  would  cease  to  be 
an  active  annoyance  for  many  years  to  come. 

As  general  remarks  on  the  subject  submitted  to  our  con- 
sideration, we  would  express  our  regret  that  attempts  are 
made  to  increase  the  number  of  bridges  by  building  addi- 
tional structures  between  those  now  existing — that  is,  at 
consecutive  .streets;  such  a  proceeding  will  only  increase 
the  difficulty  now  experienced,  as,  among  other  things, 
the  proximit}'  of  the  piers  would  prevent  vessels  from 
changing  their  course  in  case  of  danger. 

Various  methods  of  relief  from  delay  and  consequent 
crowding  have  been  suggested  to  us,  in  the  course  of  our 
inquiries,  many  of  which  are  quite  impracticable,- for  the 
present,  at  least.  Among  them  a  plan  for  having  vessels 
enter  and  depart  through  canals  at  the  north  and  south 
{substituting  navigable  canals  for  conduits) ;  another  to 
divide  the  day  into  convenient(?)  spaces  of  time,  during 
which  navigators  and  the  public  should  alternate  in  their 
exclusive  exercise  of  paramount  rights,  the  one  to  navi- 
gate and  the  other  to  cross  the  stream. 

The  river  ought  to  be  straightened,  and  in  some  in- 
stances widened  from  Adams  street  south,  and  in  all  parts 
every  facility  given  to  vessels  consistent  with  the  city 
ordinances  and  the  rules  on  the  subject  of  bridges. 

A  strict  enforcement  of  the  present  municipal  regula- 
tions for  bridges  would  be  attended  with  great  advantage  ; 
a  little  more  intelligence  and  less  of  personal  feeling  on 
the  part  of  bride-tenders  would  also  help  matters.  The 
public  should  also  remember  that  an  obstinate  man  be- 
comes more  so  if  subjected  to  abusive  language,  that  we 
are,  to  too  great  an  extent,  dependenc  upon  the  whims 
and  prejudices  of  the  bridge-tenders,  and  that  an  alterca- 
tion carried  on  at  a  distance  of  fift)^  yards  is  not  likely  to 
produce  favorable  results,  present  or  future.  Complaints 
should  be  made  to  superior  authorities,  with  the  circum- 
stances carefully  noted,  and  presented  by  known  parties. 

This  subject  has  been,  heretofore,  thoroughly  discussed, 
at  different  periods,  and  your  committee  are  of  the  opin- 


20 

ion  that  our  system  is  as  nearly  perfect  as  it  can  be  with- 
out the  adoption  of  the  two  additions  suggested  herein — 
mechanical  motive  power  and  increased  width.  We 
believe  that  if  these  are  adopted  the  evils  growing  out  of 
the  necessity  of  bridges  will  have  a  natural  cure — that  is 
to  say,  the  inevitable  growth  of  the  city  and  its  lake  com- 
merce will  demand  so  much  greater  facilities  than  its 
river  affords,  that  so  great  a  part  of  that  commerce  will 
be  concentrated  on  the  lake  front  that  the  inconveniences 
of  bridges  will  be  reduced  from  the  maximum  very 
materially.  Already  a  movement  is  in  progress  to  trans- 
fer a  part  of  the  lumber  trade  to  the  basins  east  of  the 
lake  front,  and,  as  the  day  is  almost  in  sight  when 
Chicago  will  become  a  seaport,  by  the  arrival  and 
departure  of  vessels  direct  from  Europe,  of  too  great  draft 
to  enter  the  river,  we  may  look  to  this  result  with  confi- 
dence.    Respectfully  submitted, 

Francis  Jackson, 
Edwin  Lee  Brown, 
E.  N.  Bates. 
April  2,   1880. 

Annexed  is  the  plan  for  a  new  bridge  at    Lake  Street, 
designed  under  direction  of  the  committee,  to  accompany 
the  above  report,  but  not  finished  until  January,  1881. 


l]i/ 


1-:  i 


] 


\ 


/^ 


GENERAL   PLAN 


DOUBLE    TRACK       DRAW -BRIDGE 


IV 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE 


OF  THE 


Citizens'  Association 


ON  THE 


i  Drainage  a 


d 


OF  CHICAGO, 


SEPTEMBER,  1885. 


CHICAGO: 

li  o  <i  SI  i*,  35  M  E  n  <■  II  A  N  T  s'  15  c  i  i.  n  i  n  i; 
1885. 


Citizens'  Association  of  Chicago. 


ESTABLISHED  1874. 


EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE,  1885. 


EDWIN  LEE  BROWN,  FRANCIS  B.  PEABODY, 

President.  Vice-Presidoit, 

A.  A.  CARPENTER,  JOHN  L.  THOMPSON, 

MARX  WINEMAN,  MAX  A.  MEYER, 

EDSON  KEITH,  J.  J.  GLESSNER,     ' 

M.  A.  RYERSON,  A.  W.  KINGSLAND, 

A.  F.  SEEBERGER,  R.  T.  CRANE, 

MARSHALL  FIELD,  J.  HARLEY  BRADLEY, 

MURRY  NELSON. 


GEO.  SCHNEIDER,  J.  C.  AMBLER, 

Treasurer.  Secretary 

Kooms,  35  Merchants'  Building. 


GBO.  K.  HAZI.ITT  \-  CO.,  PKINTEKS,   172  A.ND   174  SOUTEI   CLARK  STREET. 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE 


— ON- 


MAIN  DRAINAGE  AND  WATER  SUPPLY. 


Chicago,  Aug.  27,  1885, 
To  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Citizens'  Association: 

The  undersigned  committee  appointed  for  tlie  purpose  of 
investigating  the  subject  of  Main  Drainage  and  Water  Supply 
of  Chicago,  begs  leave  to  submit  the  following  report: 

A  problem  of  the  first  magnitude  is  presented  in  the  main 
drainage  of  a  city  of  700,000  inhabitants  with  the  immediate 
prospect  of  a  population  of  1,000,000,  and  a  growth  of  3,000,000 
within  the  life-time  of  citizens  who  knew  Chicago  as  an  Indian 
trading-post.  That  the  city  should  have  attained  this  growth 
without  the  development  of  an  adequate  official  plan,  for  a  perma- 
nent system  of  main  drainage  would  be  startling  in  this  day  of 
sanitary  science,  were  it  evident  that  the  conditions  of  the  prob- 
lem had  ever  been  properly  apprehended.  The  sanitary  his- 
tory of  Chicago  is  a  history  of  makeshifts  and  expedients,  in 
which  official  prevision  has  scarcely  ventured  beyond  corporate 
limits  to  the  consideration  of  the  drainage  basin  of  which  the 
municipal  area  is  but  a  small  fraction.  Even  those  expedients 
which,  while  involving  a  moderate  expenditure  for  the  relief  of 
the  present  situation,  might  still  be  in  harmony  with  a  general 
plan,  seem  to  be  inadequately  realized,  or  quite  misapprehended. 

Chicago,  in  regard  to  her  water  supply  and  main  drainage,  is 
perhaps,  more  fortunately  situated  than  any  other  of  the  princi- 
pal cities  of  the  country,  except  those  on  our  large,  rapidly-tlow- 
ing  rivers,  which  carry  away  the  sewage  at  once,  a  condition 
which  may  here  be  readily  duplicated.  Cities  on  tide-water  or 
minor  streams,  with  much  less  population  and  having  2:)roblems 
of  greater  difficulty  to  deal  with,  have  not  hesitated  to  make 
far  greater  expenditure,  in   proportion   to  their  resources,  than 


is  required  here  for  measures  of  permanent  relief.  They  have 
considered  it  wise,  before  the  pubhc  health  was  menaced,  to  call 
in  the  most  eminent  experts  to  consider  the  problem,  with  a  view 
to  the  best  solution  that  the  conditions  permitted.  They  have 
even  regarded  large  expenditure  in  the  collection  of  data  and 
in  exhaustive  preliminary  study  as  a  measure  of  undoubted 
v^nsdom. 

Your  committee  has  been  able  to  give  to  the  subject  only  a 
few  weeks  of  special  observation  and  study.  Its  sources  of  in- 
formation are  accessible  to  any  citizen  who  chooses  to  investigate 
the  matter  for  himself.  Cognizant  of  the  facts  of  our  sanitary 
history,  it  is  a  matter  of  no  great  difficulty  to  define  present 
abuses,  to  point  out  measures  of  relief  and  to  suggest  a  general 
plan  for  the  permanent  solution  of  our  drainage  problem,  as  a 
matter  for  popular  discussion  and  expert  consideration. 

POLLUTION  OF  THE   WATER  SUPPLY. 

In  the  great  rain  of  August  3  of  this  year,  the  contents  of 
both  branches  of  the  Chicago  river,  with  the  sewage  accumula- 
tion of  many  weeks  in  the  vSouth  fork,  the  contents  of  slips,  and 
the  flushings  from  several  hundred  miles  of  low-grade  sewers, 
were,  in  a  few  hours,  incontinenth-  belched  into  the  lake.  At 
every  considerable  freshet  in  the  Desplaines  and  in  the  North 
branch,  or  several  times  in  an  average  season,  a  similar  obnoxious 
flood,  differing  little  in  degree,  is  turned  lakeward.  At  other 
times  the  flow  from  the  Desplaines  is  quite  sufficient  to  supply 
the  canal,  and  the  South  branch  is  left  in  a  stagnant  condition  of 
accumulating  putridity,  ready  to  take  its  way  to  the  lake  on 
slight  occasion.  Your  committee  found  the  South  branch  in  bad 
condition  a  week  after  the  great  storm,  and  within  ten  days  the 
South  fork  was  pestilential — a  seething,  bubbling  mass  of  decom- 
position, exhaling  the  most  noisome  odors. 

The  ejection  of  such  volumes  of  sewage  into  the  lake  at  irregu- 
lar intervals,  is  a  matter  for  most  serious  consideration  in  connec- 
tion with  the  water  supply.  That  it  sometimes  reaches  the  crib 
under  favoring  conditions  of  wind  and  current  is  a  matter  of 
direct  observation  and  evidence  from  city  hydrants.  That  it 
sometimes  extends  southward  to  the  Hyde  Park  supply  is  also 
ascertained.  Even  the  comparatively  small  discharge  from  the 
Fullerton  avenue  conduit  has  given  evidence  of  pollution  when 


no  other  sewage  was  entering  the  lake.  Recently  the  discharge 
from  this  conduit  was  observed  in  an  unbroken  stream  for  over 
a  mile  south  and  parallel  to  shore,  and  again  in  a  similar  position 
to  the  north,  to  the  well-grounded  alarm  of  the  people  of  Lake 
View.  That  raw,  unoxidized  sewage  occasionally  and  not  rarely 
contaminates  our  drinking-water,  does  not  admit  of  serious  ques- 
tion.    [See  note  ^r.] 

If  we  suppose  the  entire  sewage  of  Chicago  for  one  w^eek — 
and  such  accumulation  is  sometimes  greatly  exceeded — to  be 
turned  into  the  lake  at  the  mouth  of  our  harbor  and  uniformly 
distributed  through  the  water  for  four  miles  into  the  lake  and 
eight  miles  along  the  shore,  each  200  gallons  of  water  would 
contain  one  gallon  of  sewage.  Sanitary  authorities  variously 
estimate  the  dilution  required  to  oxidize  sewage  beyond  offense 
at  twenty  to  one  hundred  times.  As  this  oxidation  requires  time, 
no  argument  is  needed  to  make  it  apparent  that,  in  the  general 
diffusion  of  the  contents  of  our  river  through  the  body  of  water 
off-shore,  partially  oxidized  sewage  reaches  the  crib.  Even 
though  we  admit  the  complete  oxidation  and  diffusion  of  sewage 
through  the  waters  off  this  shore,  sanitary  science  would  hardly 
commend  the  domestic  use  of  oxidized  sewage,  nor  will  the 
average  citizen  feel  reassured  at  the  admixture  of  a  half -gallon 
thereof  in  his  daily  water  supply.  [See  microscopical  and  chemi- 
cal examinations  in  Supplementary  Report,  pp.  23-32.] 

The  tendency,  however,  of  streams  of  different  specific  gravity 
and  constitution  is  to  remain  isolated,  or  to  diffuse  slowly,  as  may 
be  observed  where  any  stream  debouches  into  a  body  of  water, 
or  where  two  rivei^s  unite.  For  this  reason  a  large  sewage  dis- 
charge may  remain  off  our  shores  unoxidized  for  a  much  longer 
period  than  if  we  could  suppose  it  rapidly  and  generally  diffused. 
The  dansrer  from  sewage  contamination  vs'ould  therebv  be 
greatly  increased  and  of  oxidized  sewage  in  no  wise  lessened. 

While  the  occasional  admixture  from  sewage  is  beyond  dis- 
pute, and  the  presence  of  oxidized  sewage  is  probably  far  more 
frequent,  the  determination  of  any  well-defined  current  that  may 
prevail  in  the  lake  off  our  shores  would  be  a  matter  of  great  in- 

a.  On  Wednesday,  Augiast  5,  the  river  dischurg-e  was  observed  in  an  unbroken  stream 
to  and  around  the  crib.  Chemical  and  microscopical  examinations  of  the  water,  collected 
under  ditl'erent  conditions,  are  appended  to  the  Supplementary  Report. 


6 

terest.  So  far  as  the  observations  of  your  committee  extend, 
they  go  to  show  that  the  surface  curi'ent  is  most  hirgely  a  matter 
of  direction  of  wind,  and  is  accompanied  by  a  counter-current 
near  the  bottom ;  so  that  with  a  stratum  of  sewage-water 
beneath,  mere  surface  observation  is  not  sufficient  to  determine 
the  direction  or  extent  of  its  movement. 

It  is  obvious  that,  if  sewage  is  allowed  to  debouch  into  the 
lake  at  all,  freedom  from  risk  of  contaminating  our  water  supply 
can  only  be  secured  at  great  expense — far  greater  than  would  be 
required  to  permanently  dispose  of  the  sewage  in  some  other 
direction. 

THE    NORTH    BRANCH    AND    FULLERTON    AVENUE    CONDUIT. 

The  operation  of  the  conduit  has  maintained  this  branch  in 
fair  condition.  Ordinarily,  in  pumping  from  the  lake,  the  con- 
tents pass  down  into  the  South  branch  and  thence  into  the  canal. 
If  the  South  branch  is  stagnated  bv  the  Ogden-Wentworth  ditch 
discharge,  then  it  goes  to  the  lake;  as  it  does  also  at  the  time  of 
a  freshet  in  the  North  branch.  After  the  late  rise  had  somewhat 
subsided,  the  pumps  were  set  in  operation  and  the  flow  through 
the  conduit  was  revei'sed  in  the  direction  of  the  lake  at  a  time 
when  the  river  above  was  discharging  one-half  the  capacity  of 
the  conduit.  The  tendency  was  to  stagnate  the  North  branch  in- 
stead of  aiding  the  natural  flow  to  cleanse  it,  besides  discharging 
the  sewage  at  a  more  objectionable  point  in  the  lake.  Your 
committee  is  strong  in  the  opinion  that  the  conduit  should  never 
be  operated  except  in  a  direction  fiom  the  lake  to  the  river,  and 
at  times  of  flopd-discharge  it  should  be  stopped. 

The  North  branch  drains  an  area  of  some  one  hundred  and 
thirty  square  miles,  and  its  flood-discharge  complicates  the 
proper  handling  of  the  city's  sewage.  It  is  believed  that  it 
would  be  wise  to  divert  this  stream  to  the  lake  from  the  vicinity 
of  Bowmanville.  Flushing'-g'ates  could  control  the  discharore 
into  the  old  stream,  and  a  proper  wheel  would  supply  a  return 
current  from  the  lake  through  the  new  cut  when  the  natural 
supply  was  deficient.  That  part  of  the  stream  north  of  the 
present  pumping  station,  and  which  is  rapidly  developing  dock- 
age facilities,  would  thus  be  cleansed  as  well  as  the  entire  stream 
below.  The  use  of  the  Fullerton  avenue  conduit  for  its  present 
purpose  being   thus  rendered    unnecessary,  the  conduit  could  be 


fai'ther  extended  into  the  lake  for  water-supply  purposes,  and 
branch  tunnels  run  therefrom  to  supply  the  western  and  north- 
ern districts  of  the  city  and  the  towns  of  Lake  View  and  Jeffer- 
son. Its  capacity  would  be  ample  for  many  years  to  come,  and 
no  cheaper  or  better  way  suggests  itself  of  tripling  our  water 
supply  and  at  the  same  time  taking  an  important  step  in  the  so- 
lution of  the  sanitary  problem.  The  fact  that  the  limit  of  our 
present  supply  is  closely  approached  at  times,  calls  urgently  for 
additional  provision  at  an  early  day. 

THE    SOUTH    BRANCH    AND    THE    BRIDGEPORT    PUMPING 

STATION. 

The  condition  of  the  South  branch  is  dependent  on  the  opera- 
tion of  the  Bridgeport  pumping  station,  and  on  the  discharge 
from  the  Desplr.ines  through  the  Ogden-Wentworth  ditch. 
With  little  water  from  the  Desplaines,  six  pumps,  the  usual 
number  in  operation,  are  able  to  keep  the  South  branch  in  toler- 
able condition.  They  furnish  to  the  canal  about  what  would  go 
down  it  by  natural  flow  at  the  present  lake-level  if  the  canal 
were  properly  cleaned  out.  Practically,  the  entire  discharge  of 
the  Desplaines  water-shed  north  of  Summit  comes  through  the 
west  fork  when  the  Desplaines  has  fallen  to  the  capacity  of  six 
pumps,  for  at  that  stage  the  Desplaines  is  entirely  diverted 
through  the  Ogden-Wentworth  ditch  to  Bridgeport.  At  high 
water  it  is  believed  that  over  half  the  flood  discharge  comes 
through  the  Mud  lake  valley.  To  the  extent  of  the  supply 
from  the  Desplaines  is  the  Bridgeport  pumping  station  ineffect- 
ive, and  to  estimate  this  supply  at  an  average  of  one-third  of  that 
pumped  into  the  canal  is  probably  within  limits.  In  other 
words,  if  the  Desplaines  were  shut  out  of  the  Mud  lake  valley 
the  flushing  of  the  South  branch  into  the  lake,  or  its  stagnation, 
would  be  entirely  prevented  and  its  ordinary  condition  improved 
fifty  per  cent. 

For  a  few  days  after  the  great  rain  of  Aug.  2,  only  Desplaines 
water  was  thrown  into  the  canal,  and  this  was  so  evident  that  the 

b.  The  Bridg'eport  pumping-  works,  from  August  i  to  19  inclusive,  were  operated  14 
days;  6  pumps  9  days,  or  i;4  days  of  i  pump;  8  pumps  S  .days,  or  40  days  of  i  pump. 
Laurel  Hill  coal  consumed,  384  tons,  or  4.0S5  tons  per  pump  per  day;  32.68  tons  per  day  for 
8  pumps,  45.39  pounds  per  minute  to  raise  54,000  cubic  feet  of  water  30  inches,  being 
:2,29o,ooo-foot-pounds  of  effective  duty  per  hundred  pounds  of  coal.  This  is  only  a  little 
over  one-fourth  the  requirements  of  the  contract. 


pumps  were  finally  stopped  and  the  canal  supplied  by  natural  flow. 
Meantime,  with  the  diminishing  supply  from  the  Desplaines, 
the  flow  of  the  South  branch  toward  the  lake  was  arrested  until 
it  became  stagnant  and  very  offensive.  On  August  14th,  the 
entire  plant  of  eight  pumps  was  put  in  operation,  throwing  about 
fifty  thousand  cubic  feet  per  minute  down  the  canal.  This 
raised  the  surface  twenty  inches  above  the  lake  level  and  pro- 
duced a  maximum  current  of  one  and  one-half  miles  per  hour. 
Notwithstanding  this  velocity  boatmen  reported  that  the  diffi- 
culty of  navigation  was  in  no  wise  increased,  as  the  additional 
depth  of  waterway  was  full  compensation  for  the  increased 
velocity  of  current.  One  steam  canalboat,  with  two  boats  in 
tow,  was  observed  making  headway  up  the  canal  at  the  rate  of 
two  miles  per  hour,  and  a  horse  boat  at  one  and  one-half  miles. 
The  canal  superintendent  reported  that  they  could  stand  another 
foot  with  ease,  or  a  large  increase  beyond  the  capacity  of  this 
plant.  Your  committee,  therefore,  concludes  that  the  reported 
objection  to  an  excessive  supply  in  the  canal  is  without  founda- 
tion, and  does  not  doubt  that,  with  the  canal  in  proper  condition, 
75,CKX)  cubic  feet  per  minute  could  be  pumped  without  injury  to 
navigation,  that  being  a  problem  of  waterway  rather  than  of 
current.  This  quantity  would  be  about  two  and  a  half  times 
that  ordinarily  furnished  by  the  Bridgeport  plant,  and,  with  the 
Desplaines  properly  restrained,  would  maintain  a  fair  sanitary 
condition  in  the  South  branch  until  permanent  measures  of  relief 
can  be  carried  out. 

It  is  foreign  to  the  purpose  of  this  report  to  review  the  Bridge- 
port pumping  works.  Suffice  it  to  say  that,  although  they  have 
been  several  times  altered  by  their  builders,  they  yet  fail  to  at- 
tain the  specified  capacity  and  duty,  and  further  alteration  is  un- 
derstood to  be  contemplated.  If  they  were  the  best  of  their 
type  there  would  be  no  difficulty  in  urging  them  to  supply  all 
the  canal  could  be  made  to  take.  It  may  be  doubted,  in  view  of 
the  experience  in  Holland,  or  even  with  the  old  Bridgeport 
wheels,  whether  the  best  centrifugals  are  as  efficient  as  lift- 
wheels  when  the  level  of  supply  is  tolerably  constant.  Such 
wheels  could  have  been  placed  for  half  the  cost  of  the  present 
plant,  and  they  would  undoubtedly  be  superior  for  the  conditions 
obtaining  at  Bridgeport,  in  view  of  the  debris  which  it  is  neces- 


y 

sary  to  screen  from  the  centrifugals.  On  a  recent  visit  it  was 
found  that  in  order  to  obtain  an  effective  head  of  twenty  inches, 
an  additional  head  fully  as  great  was  wasted. 

"  THE  SOUTH  FORK. 

That  this  branch  has  been  allowed  to  continue,  from  year  to 
year,  in  an  abominable  condition  of  filth  beyond  the  power  of 
pen  to  describe,  is  one  of  the  anomalies  of  our  municipal  history. 
Flushed  only  during  periods  of  heavy  rainfall,  its  contents  inev- 
itably find  their  way  to  the  lake.  Its  highly  offensive  condition 
is  most  largely  due  to  the  extensive  packing  establishments,  and 
the  industries  incidental  thereto.  As  this  is  a  special  class  of 
sewage,  it  would  be  fair  to  demand  chemical  precipitation,  or 
other  treatment  equally  effective,  thus  removing  at  once  a  large, 
and  the  worst,  proportion  of  putrescible  matter.  Measures  of 
permanent  relief  should  be  instituted  at  an  early  day.  Several 
plans  for  regularly  voiding  the  contents  of  this  fork  can  be  sug- 
gested. One  of  the  best  would  seem  to  be  a  pumping  station 
and  a  conduit  on  39th  street  to  Lake  avenue,  on  Lake  avenue  to 
56th  street,  and  along  56th  street  to  the  lake,  thus  furnishing  a 
proper  outfall  toward  the  South  fork  for  the  sewerage  of  the 
northern  portion  of  Hyde  Park,  which  is  naturally  tributary  to 
the  Chicago  district.  The  opening  of  a  navigable  channel  along 
39th  street  is  also  worthy  of  consideration;  a  channel  that  maybe 
demanded  in  the  interest  of  permanent  bridges  in  the  heart  of 
the  city,  and  also  by  the  requirements  of  commerce  in  the  south- 
west district  whenever  the  National  government  may  have 
developed  ample  water  communication  to  our  Western  rivers. 
Incidentally,  it  may  be  said  that  the  main  sewers  on  12th,  33d, 
and  35th  streets,  which  now  discharge  into  the  lake,  should  ulti- 
mately have  their  outfall  at  the  river — the  natural  elevation  be- 
ing sufficient  for  that  purpose — and  that  no  new  outfalls  on  the 
lake  front  should  be  contemplated  in  the  future. 

The  west  arm  of  the  South  fork  is  the  natural  outfall  of  a 
large  portion  of  the  town  of  Lake,  south  to  6oth  street.  Unless 
it  is  filled  up  or  farther  extended  through  to  the  canal,  at  an 
early  day,  its  proper  cleansing  will  present  a  serious  problem. 
Meantime,  to  drain  into  it  the  surface  water  naturally  tributary 
thereto,  and  which  has  been  diverted  to  the  canal,  would  at  times 
afford  some  relief. 


10 

Your  committee  would  also  suggest  that  many  slips  are  fre- 
quently in  such  condition  as  to  demand  some  provision  for  pi'op- 
erly  circulating  the  water  therein  or  changing  their  contents. 

THE    OGDEN-WENTWORTII    DITCH. 

The  history  of  this  cut  makes  it  difficult  to  believe  that  the 
conditions  affecting  our  main  drainage  have  been  properly  appre- 
ciated by  the  municipal  authorities. 

The  Mud  lake  valley  has  always  been  the  natural  outlet  for  a 
considerable  proportion  of  the  flood-waters  of  the  Desplaines. 
In  the  summer  of  1S71,  a  ditch  was  opened  through  to  the  Des- 
plaines by  private  parties  without  even  a  protest  by  the  city  autho- 
rities; but  during  the  summer  of  1873  a  stone  dam  was  constructed 
across  the  ditch,  to  be  soon  after  removed  by  parties  interested  in 
an  open  ditch.  Low  brush  dams  were  constructed  at  the  head  of 
the  ditch  in  the  fall  of  1S74,  of  1S75,  and  again  in  1876,  and  as 
many  times  washed  out.  In  the  winter  of  1S76-7,  a  more  per- 
manent structure  was  constructed,  which  was  effective  at  inter- 
vals, but  finally  destroyed  for  all  practical  purposes  in  the  spring 
of  1 882.  Since  then,  at  the  approach  of  winter,  the  ice  interests 
on  the  Desplaines  have  constructed  dams  of  sufficient  height  to 
retain  the  winter  flow  in  its  natural  channel.  Only  one  attempt 
has  been  made,  and  that  by  the  canal  authorities,  to  restrain  the 
entire  flood  discharge,  and  this  resulted  in  failure.  The  purpose 
of  the  city  authorities  has  been  only  to  restrain  water  to  the  bank 
height,  and  their  efforts  have  been  effective  for  about  three  yfears 
only  out  of  thirteen.  For  ten  years  at  least  the  ordinary  flow 
of  the  Desplaines,  from  a  water-shed  of  many  hundred  square 
miles,  has  come  to  Chicago  to  complicate  her  main  drainage  and 
render  the  canal  ineffective,  and  with  each  year  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  flood-waters  find  their  outlet  in  this  direction,  threatening 
a  complete  diversion  at  an  early  day,  unless  remedial  measures 
are  adopted. 

When  your  committee  visited  the  head  of  this  ditch,  after  the 
great  rain,  it  was  taking  nearly  the  entire  discharge  of  the  Des- 
plaines river,  or  an  amount  ec[ual  to  the  capacity  of  the  pumps. 
A  very  small  expenditure  at  that  time  would  have  restrained 
this  water  in  its  natural  course,  and  enabled  the  pumps  to  work 
on  the  South  branch,  \yhich  had  become  very  offensive.  This 
work  was  not  done,  and  an  intolerable  condition  was  prolonged 


11 

for  a  full  week.  The  permanent  closln<^  of  the  Ogden-Went- 
worth  ditch  to  natural  bank  height  need  not  cost  the  expense  of 
running  the  pumping  works  for  one  month,  or  but  a  fraction  of 
the  yearly  expense  of  handling  Desplaines  river  water.  [See 
note  c] 

FLOOD    DANGERS. 

The  treatment  of  the  flood  discharge  is  a  far  more  difficult 
matter,  but  a  question  of  much  moment,  aside  from  its  relations 
to  our  sanitary  problem.  Old  citizens  will  remember  the  great 
flood  of  1849,  and  the  destruction  produced  thereby,  a  flood  that 
is  liable  to  recur  under  exaggerated  conditions  with  unlimited 
capacity  for  mischief. 

The  Desplaines  water-shed  has  been  largely  cleared  up  and 
water-courses  opened,  so  that  floods  come  more  suddenly  and  in 
greater  volume  than  in  former  years.  There  is  liable  to  be  an 
accumulation  of  from  twelve  to  eighteen  inches  of  water  in  the 
form  of  snow  over  this  area,  to  be  quickly  melted  by  a  warm 
rain,  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  great  Ohio  river  flood  of  1882. 
If  this  be  accompanied  by  an  ice  gorge  in  "  Twelve-mile  level," 
below  Summit,  as  would  be  probable,  this  great  flood  would  be 
precipitated  through  Chicago  in  untold  damage.  With  no  ice 
gorge,  the  result  would  be  sufficiently  disastrous. 

It  is  unwise  to  argue  that  such  danger  is  remote.  All  the  con- 
ditions except  the  usual  temperature  and  rainfall  were  fully  sat- 
isfied in  1 88 1.  Fortunately,  with  an  average  temperature  of  34 
degrees,  and  a  rainfall  of  only  one-half  inch  during  a  period 
of  twenty-one  days,  this  great  body  of  snow  was  gradually 
melted,  not,  however,  without  a  long-continued  large  flood  vol- 
ume, attended  with  considerable  damage.  It  is  hardly  suppos- 
able  that  nature  would  be  again  so  considerate.     [See  note  </.] 

The  necessary  combination  of  circumstances  has  occurred  too 
often  at  other  localities  to  warrant   the   belief  that   Chicago  will 

f.  The  bed  of  the  Og^den-Wentworth  ditch  at  its  head  is  about  six  feet  below  the  top  of 
Summit  and  Cook's  rock  fords  and  the  rock  bed  of  the  Desplaines  river,  commencing'  oppo- 
site the  quarries  of  the  Illinois  Sti^ne  Company  above  Lemont,  so  that  all  the  flow  of  the 
Desplaines  below  this  elevation  is  thus  diverted  toward  Chicag^o. 

li.  The  water  in  the  form  of  snow  on  the  ground,  in  the  spring  of  iSSi,  was  twelve 
inches,  or  a  fraction  less  than  the  average  winter  ])recipitation.  The  average  procii)itation 
or  rainfiiJl  for  the  month  of  April,  during  which  this  melted  and  ran  off,  is  3.24  inches,  and 
the  maximum,  6.12  inches,  so  that  a  rainfall  of  only  one-half  inch  during  the  time  is  phe- 
nomenal. 


12 

be  indefinitely  exempt,  and  she  is  built  above  no  protecting  bluff 
escarpment.     [See  note  c.'\ 

SUGGESTIONS  FOR  A   PERMANENT  SOLUTION. 

Your  committee  has  incidentally  brought  to  light  facts  bear- 
ing on  a  solution  of  the  drainage  joroblem,  which  would  appear 
to  have  been  hitherto  unconsidered.  They  are  stated  as  sugges- 
tions to,  and  in  argument  for,  a  body  of  experts,  which  should 
be  constituted  without  delay,  to  adequately  consider  the  whole 
subject  in  full  detail. 

The  general  problem  as  it  appears  to  your  committee  may  be 
stated  as  follows: 

1.  By  keeping  the  sewage  out  of  the  lake,  Chicago  can  avoid 
a  nuisance  on  her  shores  and  save,  m  future  changes  and  exten- 
sions of  her  water-supply  system,  a  large  part  if  not  the  whole 
of  the  cost  of  an  adequate  main  drainage. 

2.  Experience  has  not  yet  developed  any  artificial  treatment 
of  sewage  that  does  not  involve  a  large  first-cost  and  continual 
expenditure.  The  best  of  these,  by  the  method  of  intermittent 
downward  filtration,  is  not  feasible  for  Chicago,  on  account  of 
the  great  distance  to  proper  land.  Even  were  all  the  conditions 
properly  fulfilled,  some  means  would  still  be  required  for  circu- 
lating the  water  in  our  rivers.  In  the  i><fjDOSsibility  of  disposing 
of  the  sewage  quickly,  by  natural  flow,  and  at  far  less  cost,  any 
plan  of  sewage  treatment  may  be  dismissed  from  present  con- 
sideration. 

3.  The  proper  disposal  of  the  sewage  is  unquestionably  down 
the  valley  of  the  Illinois,  It  must  be  diluted  to  that  point  which 
will  speedily  produce  complete  oxidation,  or  the  growing  popu- 
lations along  the  river  will  not  permanently  tolerate  so  insuffer- 
able a  nviisance. 

4.  The  contents  of  all  channel  ways,  into  which  sewage  is 
discharged,  should  be  changed  so  rapidly  that  no  sewage  will 
remain  within  the  city  limits  over  twenty-four  hours. 


e.  An  ice  jtcorgc  at  Willow  Sprinjefs  could  readily  raise  flood-height  to  20  feet  above 
datum.  The  flood  of  1881  rose  to  16  feet  above  datum,  and  came  very  nearly  to  the  top  of 
the  railway  enibanknients  across  Mud-lake  valley.  If  these  should  be  overtopped  they 
would  rapidly  give  way  and  precipitate  the  flood  on  the  low-lying-  districts  to  great  depths. 
Water  might  even  find  its  way  to  the  lake  via  Storcv's  mansion  on  (Irand  boulevard,  the 
surface  there  bemg  at  an  elevation  of  only  15  feet. 


13 

5-  The  tliainage  urea,  now  tributary  to  the  sewerage  distinct, 
should  l)c  reduced  as  much  as  possible  in  order  to  avoid  the  vari- 
ations of  rainfall  over  large  outlying  districts,  the  danger  of 
floods,  and  the  liability  of  :in  occasional  discharge  of  the  con- 
tents of  our  channelways  into  the  lake.  The  main  drainage  of 
Chicago  involves  the  entire  water-sheds  of  the  Desplaines  above 
Summit  and  of  the  North  branch,  and  the  region  south  to  the 
general  east-and  west  line  of  6oth  street,  an  area  of  nearly  one 
thousand  square  miles.  It  has  already  been  suggested  that  the 
North  branch  can  be  readily  diverted  to  the  lake  from  Bowman- 
ville,  thus  reducing  the  area  by  over  on  ehundred  and  twenty 
square  miles. 

An  examination  of  the  Desplaines  river  shows  far  greater 
capacity  for  many  miles  above  Summit  than  below;  in  fact,  for 
twelve  miles  below  Summit  the  bed  is  a  succession  of  pools,  with 
rock  bars,  differing  little  in  height,  and  retaining  the  water  at  a 
uniform  level  of  about  eight  feet  above  Chicago  datum.  With 
a  mile  of  bank  only  three  to  four  feet  above  low  water,  and 
broken  by  frequent  crevasses  of  one  and  a  half  feet  opening  out 
into  the  rapid  descent  of  Mud  lake  valley,  it  must  be  evident  that 
a  large  proportion  of  all  flood-waters,  above  a  certain  minimum 
discharge,  find  their  way  to  the  lake.  The  entire  flood  discharge 
of  the  Desplaines  can,  without  doubt,  be  readily  confined  in  a 
course  to  the  south,  but  this  is  a  course  which  it  has  never  pur- 
sued, antl  such  diversion  of  its  natural  flow  would  render  the  city 
liable  for  any  resulting  damages.  Unquestionably  the  channel 
could  be  greatly  improved  so  as  to  diminish  this  liability,  anrl 
this  might  be  expedient  did  not  a  better  solution  offer. 

From  an  examination  of  the  divide  between  the  Desplaines 
and  the  North  branch,  it  is  found  feasible,  at  moderate  expense, 
to  divert  the  Desplaines  near  the  south  line  of  the  town  of  Maine 
into  the  North  branch  at  its  westerly  bend;  thence  following  the 
North  branch  valley  to  Bowmanville  and  to  the  lake  through 
Lake  View.     [See  notey.] 

This  diversion  would  dispose  of  from  75  to  80  per  cent,  of  all 
the  flood-waters  of  the  Desplaines  gathered  from  the  water-shed 

/.     The  idea  of  diverting-  the  Desplaines  to  the  lake  was  sug-g^ested  by  Mr.  O.  Guthrie 
in  February  last. 


14 

above  Summit,  besides  the  flood  waters  of  the  North  branch 
as  previously  suggested.  There  will  remain  about  lOO  square 
miles,  which  may  be  called  the  Chicago  sewerage  district  proper, 
and  about  160  of  the  Desplaines,  or  260,  in  place  of  about  1,000 
square   miles,  to  consider  in  a  scheme  of  main  drainage. 

Assuming  that  an  increased  capacity  of  the  canal  is  conceded 
as  an  essential  in  any  scheme,  your  committee  offers  the  sugges- 
tion that  such  enlargement  be  confined  to  the  first  eight  miles,  or 
to  a  point  near  Summit,  at  which  the  canal  and  the  Desplaines 
are  within  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  of  each  other,  and  where 
they  may  be  readily  connected.  A  full  consideration  might 
show  that  from  Bridgeport  to  Summit,  the  West  fork  and  Og- 
den-Wentworth  ditch  route,  would  possess  superior  advantages. 
[See  note  £-.~\ 

For  twelve  miles  below  Summit,  or  until  we  reach  Walker's 
quarry  above  Lemont,  the  water  stands  on  a  level  about  eight 
feet  above  datum,  or  less  than  five  feet  above  present  lake  level. 
Throuehout  this  reach  there  is  much  channel  of  twelve  feet 
in  depth  and  of  ample  width,  and  much  more  that  would  un- 
doubtedly cut  out  to  that  depth  under  the  influence  of  a  brisk 
current.  For  onlv  a  small  portion  of  this  distance  were  rocky 
fords  found,  and  it  is  believed  that  a  full  examination  would  not 
disclose  a  serious  amount  of  rock  excavation;  so  that  a  channel 
may  be  produced  here  seven  feet  below  present  lake  level,  and 
not  less  than  two  hundred  feet  wide,  for  twelve  miles,  at  com- 
paratively small  expense.  For  eight  miles  below  Walker's 
quarry  the  channel  would  be  practically  in  continuous  I'ock-cut, 
the  average  declivity  of  this  portion  of  the  valley  being  about 
one  foot  per  mile.  Near  Lockport  it  falls  off  rapidly  to  twenty 
feet  below  datum.  It  would  seem  from  the  examination  thus  far 
made  that  a  channel  of  sufficient  capacity  can  be  made  on  this 
route  for  about  one-half  the  cost  of  enlarging  the  canal,  and  this 
channel  would  be  capable  of  future  enlargement  at  moderate 
cost.     This  route  can  only  be  considered,  however,  in  connection 


^.  The  enlarjirement  of  the  canal  to  Summit  to  any  required  capacity  can  be  eft"ec:ed  at 
little  or  no  cost  on  account  of  the  value  of  the  clay  to  brick-makers.  From  Summit  to  one 
mile  above  Lemont,  a  smaller  proportion  of  work  would  be  required  in  the  river  as  com- 
])ared  with  the  canal.  From  Lemont  south  is  larjrely  rock  cut,  and  the  most  feasible  route  in 
the  valley  may  be  followed,  returnini;  in  part  to  the  existing  canal  line  if  deemed  expedient. 


15 

with  the  diversion  of  the  flood-waters  of  the  upper  river.     [See 
note  h]. 

The  duty  of  the  new  channel  would  be  to  take  care  of  the 
natural  flow  of  260  square  miles  of  territory  and  the  sewage, 
properly  diluted,  of  its  population.  It  can  be  developed  with 
ease  into  a  great  navigable  channel,  and  furnish  an  ample  water 
supply  for  the  low-water  navigation  of  the  lower  river  from  the 
most  magnificent  reservoir  available  as  an  aid  to  navigation,  and 
make  apparent  the  error  of  the  opinion  which  led  to  the  con- 
struction of  locks  and  dams  on  the  Illinois,  below  Peru.  In  an 
ample  section,  with  all  tl\e  depth  and  grade  which  could  be  given 
to  a  channel  from  Chicago  to  Joliet,  the  stream  would  be  readily 
navigable,  as  experience  has  shown  with  much  higher  velocities 
on  our  Western  and  Southern  rivers.  If  the  project  should  ever 
be  carried  out  with  due  regard  to  its  possibilities  as  an  aid  to 
navigation,  over  one  hundred  thousand  horse-power  would  be 
available  between  Lockport  and  Peru,  the  yearly  value  of  which 
would  represent  a  dividend  on  many  millions  of  dollars. 

The  suggestion  proposed  has  the  merit  of  inviting  expenditure 
for  present  relief  in  the  direction  of  an  ultimate  plan,  each  step 
of  which  would  be  of  substantial  benefit.  Thus,  in  a  ver}^  few 
years,  without  the  necessity  of  an  increased  indebtedness,  a  per- 
manent plan  may  be  carried  out  at  a  relatively  small  expense  as 
comjDared  to  that  of  many  of  our  cities.  At  the  same  time  an 
important  step  would  be  taken  in  a  proper  project  for  connecting 
the  navigation  of  the  Great  Lakes  with  that  of  the  Mississippi 
river,  which  may  be  followed  by  the  General  government  with- 
out suspicion  that  it  is  purely  in  the  interest  of  a  local  drainage 
project. 

The  solution  of  our  drainage  problem  involves  contiguous  ter- 
i-itory,  many  diverse  interests,  and  a  mature  expert  consideration, 
after  the  most  comprehensive  data  have  been  collected.  It  would 
be  rash  to  urge  any  project  as  the  best  in  advance  of  the  compe- 
tent study  which   should   be   provided  for,  but  in  calling  your 

k.  Your  committee  is  aware  that  the  Desplaines  was  considered,  in  1865,  as  a  possible 
drainage  channel,  and  rejected  in  favor  of  the  canal  deepening-.  Had  future  requirements 
in  an  enlarged  channelway  been  evident  at  that  time,  or  had  a  plan  of  disposing  of  the 
flood-waters  of  the  Desplaines  suggested  itself,  it  is  believed  that  a  different  conclusion 
would  have  been  reached. 


1^ 

attention  to  what  appears  to  be  a  ready  solution  of  the  problem, 
it  must  be  apparent  that  the  matter  has  not  hitherto  been  ade- 
quately considered. 

Your  committee  would  urge  with  all  possible  force  the  neces- 
sity of  an  expert  commission  to  make  the  fullest  investigation. 
The  commission  should  be  constituted  for  an  ample  period,  and 
be  sufficient  in  number  to  give  competent  expert  consideration 
to  all  phases  of  the  problem  and  to  eliminate  purely  personal 
views.  To  suppose  that  those  charged  with  executive  duties  in 
a  great  city  will  find  the  leisure  to  adequately  consider  the  matter 
would  be  to  ignore  our  past  history. 

RESUME. 

To  sum  up,  the  suggestions  of  the  committee   are  as  follows : 

That  the  proper  limits  of  the  Chicago  sewerage  district  are 
north  to  the  line  of  Bowmanville,  south  to  6oth  street,  and  west 
to  the  Desplaines  divide. 

That  all  sewage  whatsoever  in  this  district  should  be  diverted 
from  the  lake  as  an  outfall. 

That  the  flood  waters  of  the  Desplaines  and  the  North  branch 
should  be  diverted  to  the  lake  north  of  this  district,  or  through 
Lake  View  township. 

That  a  lift-wheel  be  placed  at  the  junction  of  the  pi'oposed  new 
cut  through  Lake  View  and  the  North  branch  to  flush  the  latter 
stream  when  natural  flow  is  deficient. 

That  the  FuUerton  avenue  conduit,  thus  rendered  unnecessary 
for  the  cleansing  of  the  North  branch,  be  farther  extended  into 
the  lake  and  utilized  for  the  purposes  of  additional  water  suppl}'. 

That  the  South  fork  be  connected  with  the  lake  by  a  conduit. 
A  naviofable  channel  from  the  lake  and  an  extension  of  its  west 
arm  to  a  junction  with  the  canal  is  worthy  of  consideration,  as 
providing  for  dockage-extensions  in  Mud  lake  valley,  which  a 
proper  navigable  channel  to  the  w^est,  may  some  day  demand, 
and  also,  in  connection  with  the  Lake  View  cut  to  the  North 
branch,  obviate  the  chief  objection  to  permanent  bridges  in  the 
heart  of  the  city. 

That  an  ample  channel  be  created  to  the  Illinois  river  sufficient 
to  carry  away,  in  a  highly  diluted  state,  the  sewage  of  a  large 
population — the  immediate  obviously  plan  being  by  an  enlarge- 
ment of  the   canal   from    Bridgeport  to  Summit,  its  extension  at 


17 

that  point  to  the  bed  of  the  Desphiines,  and  the  improvement  of 
the  Desplaines  as  herein  indicated,  leaving  the  canal  below  Sum- 
mit in  its  present  condition. 

That  this  channel  may  be  enlarged  by  the  State  or  National 
government  to  any  requirement  of  navigation  or  water  supply 
for  the  lower  river,  creating,  incidentally,  a  great  water-power 
in  the  Illinois  valley. 

That  the  general  plan  can  be  carried  out  step  by  step  to  the 
gradual  improvement  of  the  sanitary  condition,  and  without 
creating  a  debt  or  requiring  an  extraordinary  tax  levy. 

That  a  comprehensive  plan,  any  portion  of  which  may  be  car- 
ried into  execution  whenever  the  conditions  make  it  necessary, 
and  which  will  still  dovetail  into  the  general  system,  demands 
for  its  conception  and  elaboration  the  creation  of  an  expert  com- 
mission, to  which  the  whole  subject  of  the  main  drainage  and 
water  supply  of  Chicago  should  be  at  once  committed  for 
exhaustive  study  and  report. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

O.  GUTHRIE, 
L.  E.  COOLEY,  C.  E., 
F.  W.  REILLY,  M.  D., 
WM.  RUTHERFORD, 
CHAS.  A.  MACDONALD, 
DAVID  BRADLEY, 
J.J.  GLESSNER, 
EDWIN  LEE  BROWN. 

Committee. 


18 


Supplen]entary  Report  of  the  GomiDittee. 


Chicago,  Sept.   12,   1885. 
To  the  Executive   Comtnittee  of  the  Citizens'  Association: 

Gentlemen: — In  accordance  with  the  promise  in  our  report 
of  the  27th  of  August,  there  is  herewith  submitted  the  conclu- 
sions of  Mr.  B.  \V.  Thomas  and  of  Prof.  Delafontame,  on  the 
purity  of  the  water  supply  of  Chicago,  the  former  based  upon 
many  hundred  microscopical  examinations,  the  latter  upon  one 
hundred  and  thirty  chemical  analyses.  The  investigations  of 
these  accomplished  experts  cover  a  long  period  of  time  and  em- 
brace the  character  of  the  water  actually  supplied  to  our  citizens 
for  consumption  under  all  the  varying  conditions  which  affect  its 
purity. 

This  testimony  amply  confirms  the  belief  that  the  source  of  the 
Chicago  water  suppl}'.  Lake  Michigan,  in  its  natural  condition, 
is  such  as  should  satisfy  the  most  captious,  and  that  no  alarm 
need  be  felt  for  the  ultimate  satisfactory^  solution  of  the  water 
question,  except  through  neglect  or  incapacity.  Your  commit- 
tee is,  however,  unanimous  and  unqualified  in  stating  that,  under 
existing  circumstances,  the  water  supply  is  frequently  and  for 
considerable  periods  of  time,  dangerously  contaminated.  That 
the  river  water  and  sewage  have,  on  several  different  occasions 
since  the  second  day  of  August  last,  reached  the  crib  in  an  un- 
broken flow,  admits  of  no  possible  doubt.  River  water  and 
sewage  in  a  partially  diluted  state  have  surrounded  the  crib 
during  nearly  the  entire  time  covered  by  the  investigations  of 
your  committee. 

Accompanying   this   report    is    a   sketch-map   illustrating   the 

NoTK. — The  reports  here  submitted  were  drafted  by  a  sub-coniiiiittce,  consisting  of 
Messrs.  Guthrie,  Coolky  anil  Reilly.  To  Mr.  (ji;thkie  esi)ccial  acknowledgment  is 
due— his  large  personal  experience  and  knowledge  of  the  conditions  having  contributed 
materially  to  the  mass  of  details  collected  in  the  brief  time  at  the  disposal  of  the  committee. 


W-TV^-jr      E     R«S    H     E     D  ]  /[ 


S^cli:\fap  of  lUc  proposed  Chicago  Sc-^erage  Dislricl  ami  Afain  Drainage  Route. 


19 

principal  suggestions  of  the  committee,  contained  in  the  report 
of  August  27th,  and  which,  with  the  exphmatory  text,  presents 
the  subject  in  graphic  form. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

O.  GUTHRIE, 
L.  E.  COOLEY,  C.  E., 
F.  W.  REILLY,  M.  D. 
WM.  RUTHERFORD, 
CHAS.  A.  MacDONALD, 
DAVID  BRADLEY, 
J.  J.  GLESSNER, 
EDWIN  LEE  BROWN, 

Co?nm/tiee. 

EXPLANATION  OF  SKETCH  MAP. 

It  is  proposed  to  divert  the  North  branch  of  the  Chicago  river 
from  the  vicinity  of  Bowmanville  to  the  lake  through  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  town  of  Lake  View.  This  will  obviate  the 
complication  of  flood-discharge,  and,  in  dry  weather,  a  lift- 
wheel  at  Bowmanville  will  furnish  clean  water  from  the  lake  to 
the  North  branch  below  that  point.  This  diversion  will  do  away 
with  the  use  of  the  Fullerton  avenue  conduit  for  cleansing:  the 
North  branch,  and  make  the  conduit  at  once  available  for  water- 
supply  to  a  large  district  of  Chicago  and  adjacent  suburbs.  In- 
cidentally the  low  prairie  district  of  Evanston,  Niles,  and  Jefferson 
will  be  greatly  improved. 

The  proposed  diversion  of  the  flood-waters  of  the  Desplaines 
river  across  the  divide  near  Norwood  Park,  following  the  North 
branch  and  its  diversion  thence  to  the  lake,  will  control  the  flood- 
discharge  of  the  Desplaines  for  about  seventy-five  per  cent,  of 
its  drainage-basin  above  Summit.  The  upper  part  of  Salt  creek 
may  be  also  readily  diverted  by  the  same  route.  Thus  all  com- 
plication of  floods  from  the  Desplaines,  which  in  part  natiirallv 
follow  the  Mud  l^ke   route  to  Chicago,  will  be  done  away  w  ill'. 

These  diversions  place  all  the  water-shed  affecting  Chicago 
under  control  so  that  sewage  need  not  reach  the  lake,  and  will 
permit  the  usj  oi  the  bed  of  the  Desplaines  below  Summit  for  a 


20 

main-drainage  channel  to  the  Ilhnois  river.  There  remains  only 
i6o  square  miles  in  the  "  Desplaines  drainage  district,"  and  lOO 
square  miles  in  the  "  Chicago  sewerage  district"  to  tax  the  chan- 
nel to  the  Illinois.  The  "  Chicago  sewerage  district "  extends  to 
the  line  of  diversion  on  the  north,  to  the  Desplaines  divide  on  the 
west,  and  to  the  natural  divide  in  the  towns  of  Hyde  Park  and 
Lake  on  the  south.  Evanston  to  the  north,  and  Hyde  Park  and 
Lake  to  the  south  are  naturally  independent  districts  demanding 
individual  treatment. 

The  proposed  "Main-drainage  route"  follows  the  canal  to 
Summit;  or,  if  found  preferable,  the  Ogden-Wentworth  ditch, 
reversing  its  present  direction  of  flow.  Thence  from  Summit 
for  twelve  miles  the  bed  of  the  Desplaines  is  found  to  require 
much  less  work  than  the  enlargement  of  the  present  canal. 

From  the  South  fork  a  conduit  is  shown  along  39th  street  and 
entering  the  lake  at  56th  street,  thus  intercepting  the  sewerage 
of  the  northern  portion  of  Hyde  Park.  A  navigable  channel 
from  the  lake  along  39th  street  is  suggested  as  preferable  in  the 
interest  of  permanent  bridges  in  the  heart  of  the  city,  and  also  of 
the  future  development  of  a  water  route  to  the  West. 

The  arrows  on  the  map  indicate  the  proposed  direction  of  all 
flow,  with  the  following  exceptions:  From  the  North  branch  to 
the  lake  the  flow  through  the  new  channel  would  be  lake  ward 
for  flood  waters,  and  riverward  for  cleansing  purposes  during 
low-water  stages.  Along  Ogden  ditch  the  arrow  indicates  the 
present  flow,  which,  it  is  suggested,  may  be  reversed  by  widen- 
ing and  deepening,  so  as  to  create  a  current  by  gravity  through 
the'  West  fork  from  the  South  branch. 


MICROSCOPICAL    EXAMINATION    OF    THE    CHI- 
CAGO WATER  SUPPLY. 


Chicago,  September  10,  1SS5. 
To  the  at z efts'  Association  of  Chicago: 

Gentlemen: — Thanking  yoin- committee  for  the  opj^ortunity 
of  visiting  the  lake  crib,  and  making  personal  examination  of 
the  source  of  the  city  water  supply  very  soon  after  the  late 
severe  storm   of   rain   and    wind,  I   will,  as  requested,   make   a 


['1AJM 


"^    This  Map  shows  the    Towns  and  Sections  of  land  affected  liy  the   Drainage  system  proposed  in  the 
»-  '  «.«jcjw*^"*anc^.         acconit>anvinir  Rc-t,nrts. 


'21 

brief  statement  of  the  general  appearance  of  the  lake  at  and 
around  the  crib  at  that  time,  and  of  some  of  the  contents  of  the 
water  from  the  city  hydrants  two  days  later. 

July  30th,  on  invitation  of  Commissioner  of  Public  Works, 
Dewitt  C.  Cregier,  I  had  the  pleasure  of  visiting  the  lake  crib 
and  the  outlet,  or  what  should  be  the  inlet,  of  the  Fullerton  ave- 
nue conduit.  For  some  time  before  this  visit,  the  pumping  works 
at  Bridgeport  had  more  than  taken  care  of  the  water  of  the 
Desplaincs  river  that  comes  through  the  broken  dam  and  the 
Ogden-Wentworth  ditch,  and  the  Fullerton  avenue  conduit  had 
been  discharging  from  the  lake  into  the  river,  and  consequently 
the  lake  water  was  very  clear  and  apparently  almost  absolutely 
pure,  and  the  structure  of  the  crib  could  be  clearly  seen  for 
many  feet  below  the  surface. 

Sediment  from  the  water  supply  collected  at  this  time  was 
composed  very  largely  of  diatomaceie — an  occasional  fresh 
water  crustacean  and  other  organisms  that  belong  to  the  flora 
and  fauna  of  the  northern  lakes. 

From  many  hundred  microscopical  examinations  of  the  filtrate 
from  the  hydrant  water  during  the  past  15  years,  I  believe  this 
to  be  the  normal  condition  of  the  waters  of  Lake  Michigan,  and 
this  pure  water  usually  extends  for  some  distance  south  and  west 
of  the  lake  crib. 

On  this  second  visit  (August  6th),  soon  after  the  heavy  rain 
and  wind  storm,  the  appearance  of  the  lake  had  entirely  changed, 
the  water  at  the  crib  and  for  some  distance  east  and  north  be- 
ing quite  roiley,  having  a  whitish  or  milky  appearance,  with  a 
slight  greyish  tinge,  fading  out  as  we  passed  the  crib  and  grow- 
ing darker  as  we  neared  the  river  on  our  return,  and  the  water 
of  the  river  was  black  and  very  offensive.  The  milky  appear- 
ance is  undoubtedly  caused  by  the  wash  of  clay  from  the  clay 
bluflfs  north  of  the  city,  and  from  the  bed  of  the  lake,  and  can- 
not be  regarded  as  in  any  sense  objectionable,  and  certainly  can- 
not be  remedied  at  present. 

The  "  slight  greyish  tinge  "  was  somewhat  suspicious,  but  as 
we  were  not  prepared  to  collect  samples  of  the  water,  there  was 
only  a  suspicion  of  river  water  as  far  out  as  the  lake  crib.  This 
vital  question  I  have  attempted  to  solve  so  far  as  it  could  be  done 
by  a  careful  microscopical  examination.     Two  days  later,  on  the 


22 

evening  of  Angust  Sth,  Dr.  W,  H.  Forwood,  Surgeon  U.  S.  A.^ 
on  Gen.  Schofield's  staff,  and  myself,  made  a  collection  of  sedi- 
ment or  filtrate  from  the  lake  water,  by  tying  a  perfectly  clean 
and  rather  loosely  woven  linen  napkin,  in  the  form  of  a  bag,, 
onto  the  laundry  faucet,  and  letting  a  full  head  of  water  run 
through  it  for  about  twenty  minutes.  We  then  carefully 
washed  the  mass  of  material  that  had  collected  in  the  napkin,, 
into  a  pitcher  of  water  drawn  from  the  same  faucet,  and  poured 
it  into  a  clear  glass  quart-bottle.  Notwithstanding  much  of  the 
finer  material,  sand,  clay,  etc.,  would  pass  through  the  napkin, 
it  made  a  thick  mass  that  could  not  be  seen  through ;  and  after 
standing  a  short  time,  it  covered  the  bottom  of  the  bottle  half  an 
inch  or  more  in  thickness.  We  tnen  made  a  careful  and  some- 
w^hat  thorough  microscopical  examination  of  this  material,  and 
were  fully  satisfied  that  but  a  very  small  part  of  it  originated  in 
Lake  Michigan.  A  very  few  diatoms,  and  three  or  four  crusta- 
ceans were  about  all  of  the  Lake  Michigan  organisms,  properly 
so  called,  that  we  observed.  The  great  bulk  of  the  material 
was  made  up  of  the  debris,  of  animal  and  vegetable  matter, 
some  of  it  showing  the  original  structure,  but  most  of  it  was  in 
dark,  or  yellowish,  stringy,  irregular  masses,  in  which  were 
recognized  angulllula  fluviatilis,  rotifers,  actinophrys,  vorticella, 
and  others  of  the  lowest  animal  organisms,  such  as  are  usually 
found  with  decaying  animal  or  vegetable  matter.  I  will  not 
venture  to  decide  from  what  source  this  mass  of  very  offensive 
material  was  derived,  but  I  will  say,  that  it  is  always  present  in 
the  lake  water  after  a  spring  freshet,  or  after  a  continuous  and 
heavy  rainfall,  such  as  occurred  about  the  second  of  this  month,, 
when  the  water  of  the  Desplaines  had  flushed  the  filth  of  the 
Chicago  river  Into  the  lake,  and  It  generally  remains  in  the  water 
until  a  wind  storm  on  the  lake  drives  it  away,  and  is  almost 
always  present  when  the  FuUcrton  avenue  conduit  is  discharg- 
ing the  waters  of  the  North  branch  into  the  lake.  The  process 
of  collecting  this  sediment  and  making  the  microscopical  exam- 
ination is  very  easy,  and  any  gentleman  of  the  Association  can 
with  but  little  trouble  satisfy  himself  as  to  the  correctness  of 
these  statements. 

From  present   and  previous  observations,  and  a  long  series  of 
mici'oscopical  examinations,  I  am  fully  satisfied  that  our  drinking 


23 

water  is  quite  frequently  polluted  with  the  filth  from  the  North 
branch,  through  the  Fullerton  avenue  conduit  and  from  the 
main  river,  when  it  is  flushed  into  the  lake  by  the  water  of  the 
Desplaines,  coming  through  the  Ogden-Wentworth  ditch.  I 
am  further  convinced  that  we  can  have  an  abinidant  and  con- 
stant supply  of  pure  water  without  adding  one  dollar  to  the 
present  current  expenses  of  the  city,  by  damming  the  waters  of 
the  Desplaines  out  of  the  Chicago  river,  and  running  the  pump- 
ing works  at  Bridgeport  to  their  full  capacity,  and  on  no  account 
should  the  Fullerton  avenue  conduit  be  allowed  to  discharge  the 
water  fro7n  theJVorth  branch  into  the  lake^  but  constantly  from 
the  lake  into  the  river. 

These  suggestions  honestly  carried  into  effect,  would,  in  my 
opinion,  satisfactorily  settle  the  question  of  the  purity  of  our 
drinking  water,  for  many  years  to  come. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

B.  W.  THOMAS. 

Chicago,  August  21st,  18S5. 


CHEMICAL    EXAMINATION    OF     THE     CHICAGO 

WATER  SUPPLY. 


Chicago,  Sept.  11^  1SS5. 

During  the  last  thirteen  months  I  have  made  over  130  exam- 
inations of  our  lake  water  as  it  is  supplied  to  us  by  the  city 
water  works.  The  purpose  of  that  investigation  was  to  find 
out  what  truth  there  is  in  some  published  aspersions  on  the  purity 
of  our  staple  drink.  It  has  been  suggested  to  me  that  my  con- 
clusions would  be  of  interest  to  the  public ;  hence,  the  following 
report : 

It  is  unquestionable  that  the  Lake  Michigan  water  is,  in 
itself,  all  we  may  wish.  From  an  hygienic  standpoint,  it  stands 
high — very  few  fresh  waters  excel  it — and  it  surpasses  a  great 
many  in  regard  to  purity  and  wholesomeness.  We  often  get  it 
into  our  houses  in  that  desirable  state;  but,  unless  something  is 
done  soon,  the  word  "  often  "  will  have  to  be  changed  to  sotne- 
times. 

Not  frequently  our  hydrant  water  contains  a  considerably  in- 


24 

creased  proportion  of  organic  matter,  which  may  be  called  par- 
tially oxidized  sewage.  The  chief  cause  of  that  fact  is  the  same 
here  as  in  other  similarly  situated  cities,  namely,  the  neighbor- 
hood of  an  outer  harbor,  acting  as  a  receptacle  for  a  part  of  our 
sewage.  That  evil  grows  every  year,  as  our  population  and 
business  increase. 

Contrary  to  my  former  belief,  sewage,  sometimes  directly, 
contaminates  our  water  supply.  I  have  been  slow  in  coming  to 
that  conclusion,  but  the  evidence  is  incontrovertible,  that  out  of 
130  samples  examined  by  me,  at  least  fourteen  were  sewage  pol- 
luted. On  the  28th  of  August  last  our  hydrants  supplied  us 
vvath  an  article  hardly  less  foul  than  the  Chicago  river  water. 
That  was  the  most  disgusting  sample  that  ever  came  to  my 
notice.  It  was  a  mine  of  putrefaction  products  and  bacteria. 
Quite  often,  doctors  disagree;  but,  if  there  is  a  point  on  which 
hygienists  are  unanimous,  it  is  the  importance  of  preventing  the 
pollution  of  drinking  water  by  town  sewage;  therefore,  it  is 
our  duty  to  devise  forthwith,  the  means  of  improving  the  quality 
of  our  deteriorating  water  supply. 

As  was  to  be  expected,  our  suburbs  are  not  better  off  than 
we  are.  I  found  sewage  in  two  samples  of  Hyde  Park  water, 
and  in  the  one  from  the  town  of  Lake  pipes — the  only  three 
examined  by  me  from  these  sources. 

M.  Delafontaine. 


WHAT  WE  DRINK. 


[Reprint  from  the  Chicago  Times  of  August  17,  1S84.] 
To  THE  Editor  : — A  full  and  intelligent  discussion  of  the  city  water  sup- 
ply, its  quality  and  quantity,  is  at  this  time  of  the  utmost  importance.  It  is 
admitted  by  all  competent  authorities  that  an  abundant  supply  of  pure 
water  is  one  of  the  necessities  of  a  community  at  any  time,  but  it  is  of  vital 
importance  when  threatened  with  a  deadly  epidemic.  Sir  Robert  Rawlin- 
son,  in  a  recent  paper  in  reference  to  cholera,  said :  "  Water  should  be  used 
without  stint  for  all  sanitary  purposes.  All  that  water  can  remove  must  be 
washed  away.  All  matter  liable  to  become  putrid  must  be  burned."  Dr. 
Ranch,  in  his  recent  report  to  the  state  board  of  health,  gives  as  among  the 
best  safeguards  against  Asiatic  cholera,  "a  pure  and  sufficient  water  supply." 


25 

And  Dr.  Kocli,  on  his  return  to  Berlin,  after  visiting  tlie  plague-stricken 
cities  of  France,  said,  in  a  lecture,  that  "an  improved  water  supply  was  the 
best  means  of  checking  the  disease."  While  we  have  at  our  doors  an  un- 
limited supply  of  naturally  pure  water,  and  our  municipal  authorities  ha\e 
at  their  command  ample  means  and  machin-Tv  for  its  proper  distribution 
and  to  protect  its  purity ;  it  is  well  known  that  the  water  delivered  to  the 
families  of  the  city  is  not  pure,  and  that  it  is  impure  to  such  a  degree  that 
many  of  our  citizens  will  not  permit  its  use  as  drinking  water  in  their 
families;  but  the  large  mass  of  consumers  are  obliged  to  use  what  they  can 
get  from  their  faucets.  It  does  not  require  an  expert  to  discover  that  our 
water  supply  is  almost  constantly  contaminated,  and  there  is  hardly  a  doubt 
that  it  is  with  the  filth  and  rottenness  from  the  North  branch  of  the  Chi- 
cago river,  which  our  municipal  authorities  are  forcing  through  the  Fuller- 
ton  avenue  conduit  into  the  lake  at  the  rate,  it  is  reported,  of  sixteen  thous- 
and cubic  feet  per  minute.  Lake  Michigan  at  this  point  is  comparatively 
shallow — at  one  mile  out  from  the  North-side-  Pumping  Works  being  but 
thirty  feet  deep;  at  the  lake  crib,  two  miles  out,  thirty-five  feet,  and  at  three 
miles  from  shore,  or  more  than  one  mile  beyond  the  crib,  it  is  less  than  forty 
feet  deep. 

It  will  not  do  to  say  that  this 

MASS    OF    FILTH 

and  corruption  that  is  being  discharged  into  this  shallow  water,  less  than 
tw^o  miles  north  of  the  North-side  Pumping  Works,  and  only  about  two 
and  a  half  miles  in  a  direct  line  to  the  inlet  to  our  city  water  supply,  can 
not  reach  the  crib,  for  anyone  familiar  with  the  sediment  from  the  lake 
water,  before  and  since  the  conduit  has  been  at  work,  knows  that  it  does 
reach  it,  and  there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  but  that  this  filth,  in  a  dilute  form, 
is  given  to  us  and  to  our  families  as  drinking  water.  Let  anyone  that  visits 
Lincoln  park  go  to  the  shore  of  the  lake  at  the  outlet  of  the  conduit,  and  black 
patches  of  this  putridity  can  at  almost  any  time  be  seen  all  around,  some- 
times  extending  in  almost  a  direct  line  toward  tne  crib,  at  others  breaking 
in  a  slimy  suds  on  the  shore,  and  at  all  times  smelling  to  heaven  against 
the  authors  of  such  a  nuisance. 

As  showing  independent  of  microscopical  examination  that  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  this  poison  does  polute  our  city  water  supply,  I  give 
a  few  analyses  made  by  Messrs.  Blaney  and  Mariner  at  the  request  of  the 
board  of  public  works  in  iS6i,  when  the  board  was  discussing  as  to  the  best 
place  to  locate  the  lake  crib  These  analyses  clearly  show  that  as  early  as 
1861,  organic  matter  from  the  shore  extended  to  over  one  mile  into  the  lake. 
The  analyses  are  as  follows : 


2() 


ci^ 

-o 

r" 

r^ 

c 

3      r/5 

.a 

*X 

:;ii 

r^ 

,• 

c 

"d 

J 

O 

o 

a 

u 

Ch 

' 

►i5  o 

T3 

C3 

< 

c 

C3 

<u 

cS 

OJ  T3 

< 

'c 

03 

a, 

■3 

C3 
O 

■a  c 

o 

c 
o 

o 

S 

3 
C/2 

o 

CO 

U 

C^ 

1-3 

S 

1) 
Cl, 

One    tliousand  feet    from 

shore  at  Circle\  ille 

2  88 

10.58 

.36 

.24 

.08 

4.15 

2.59 

.59 

.42 

2.46 

One    thousand    feet   from 

shore  at  present  pump- 

ing works .  . 

2.07 

7.54 

.17 

.37 

.10 

143 

2  57 

.73 

.02 

2  70 

One    mile  from    shore  at 

Circleville 

1.72 

10.13 

.31 

.23 

.01 

4  08 

2.34 

63 

.13 

2.34 

One    mile  from   shore   at 

present  pumping  works. 

1.99 

8.15 

.26 

.21 

.15 

1.79 

3.01 

.60 

.02 

2.85 

Two  miles  from  sliore— or 

at  the  lake  crib 

1.27 

5  9« 

30 

.14 

.21!    -^^ 

2.48 

.68 

.08 

2.50 

Referring  to  the  above,  E.  S.  Chesbrough,  Esq.,  then  city  engineer,  in  his 
official  report  to  the  board  of  public  works,  said:  "These  analyses  confirm 
the  theories,  not  only  that  the  water  of  the  lake  is  the  purer,  the  further 
you  take  it  from  the  shore,  but  the  one  that  the  impurities  are  greater  w^ithin 
the  city  limits,  south  of  the  river,  than  at  a  much  less  distance  north."  In 
this  test  of  their  own  seeking,  and  made  under  its  own  direction,  it  was 
demonstrated  to  and  admitted  by  the  engineer  department,  that  the  compara- 
tively small  amount  of  impurity,  even  at  that  early  day,  discharged  into  the 
lake,  had  already  extended  to  o\er  one  mile  froin  the  shore,  and  that  the 
general  current  of  the  lake  carried  these  impurities  mainly  from  the  north 
to  the  south.  But  our  present  authorities  reverse  the  original  design  of  the 
conduit  and  discharge  the  contents  of  the  North  branch  into  the  shallow 
water  of  the  lake,  just  north  of  the  inlet  to  the  city  water  supply.  As  these 
impurities  are  largely 


HELD    IN    SOLUTION 

filtering  is  of  but  little  value.  It  is  like  perfuming  sewer-gas.  It  may  make  it 
a  little  less  offensive,  but  it  is  just  as  deadly.  Water  once  polluted  can  not,  by 
any  ordinary  filtering,  be  made  potable.  If  anyone  thinks  that  the  ordinary 
filter  will  remove  anything  held  in  solution,  or  even  much  of  finer  organic 
matter,  let  him  put  a  little  common  salt,  or  laundry  bluing,  into  the  upper 
end  of  the  filter,  screw  it  into  the  faucet,  and  try  a  glass  of  water  drawn 
through  it.  Then  put  into  the  filter  a  little  starch,  or  even  blood,  and  try  it 
in  the  same  way,  and  he  will  decide  that  it  would  be  far  better  to  have  kept 
the  water  pure  in  the  first  place.     And  what  is  the   reason  or  necessity   for 


ii7 

pumping  from  the  North  branch  into  the  lake?  The  Fullerton  avenue  con- 
duit is  on  the  extreme  north  line  of  the  city,  and  the  North  branch  and  its 
branches  extend  through  and  drain  a  large  area  of  country,  as  far  north  as 
Highland  Park  and  Libertyville,  and  at  times  the  branch  has  a  strong  cur- 
rent, and  it  would  seetn  but  reasonable  to  suppose  that  if  the  conduit  would 
aid  this  current,  as  originally  intended,  by  adding  to  its  volume  16,000  feet 
per  minute,  of  pure  lake  water,  it  would  be  much  more  effective  in  purify- 
ing that  branch  tlian  the  present  method  of  reducing  this  natural  flow, 
which  not  onlv  poisons  the  city  water  supply,  but,  it  seems  almost  certain, 
prevents  the  natural  purification  of  the  North  branch.  If  the  conduit 
would  discharge  its  16,000  feet  per  minute  of  lake  water  into  the  North 
branch,  and  the  Bridgeport  pumps  will  continue  to  discharge  (as  now  re- 
ported) 60,000  feet  per  minute  from  the  river  into  the  canal  (I  understand 
that  the  capacity  of  these  pumps  is  60,000  cubic  feet  per  minute),  and  the 
water  from  the  Aux  Plaines  river  be  kept  out  of  Chicago  river,  the  com- 
plaint of  unwholesome  water  would  at  once  cease,  and  we  would  be  much 
better  prepared  to  fight  cholera  and  enjoy  life  than  we  are  at  present.  Mr. 
Chesborough,  in  the  second  annual  report  of  the  board  of  public  works, 
referring  to  the  bad  condition  of  the  river,  said:  "It  appears  th;it  the 
greatest  portion  of  the  impurities  which  give  rise  to  putrid  effluvia  enter 
into  the  North  branch;"  and  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  not  a  sin^ile 
sewer  enters  into  that  part  of  the  river.  And  in  the  same  report  he  recom- 
mends, for  cleaning  the  river,  "  the  making  of  canals  from  the  lake  to  the 
North  and  South  branches,  and  driving  water  enough  through  them  from 
the  lake  to  keep  the  river  and  its  branches  comparatively  pure  at  all  times." 
But  suppose  (not  by  any  means  admitting)  that  pumping  from  the  lake  into 
the  river  has  failed  to  accomplish  what  was  intended,  and  that  the  discharge 
from  the  North  branch  into  the  lake  does  keep  that  branch  somewhat  less 
offensive,  would  it  not  be  economy  and  common  sense  to  direct  the  health 
department  to  summarilv  suppress  the  nuisances  on  the  North  branch 
(whiuh  are  the  cause  of  most  of  the  trouble),  and  do  what  that  department 
has  full  power  to  do,  and  ought  to  have  done  vears  ago,  prevent  the  dis- 
charge of  filth  into  the  North  branch.''     It  would  seem  that 

THE    CITY    AUTHORITIES, 

for  the  accommodation  of  a  few  interested  parties,  are  wi'ling  not  only  to 
tax  our  citizens  to  build  a  conduit  and  run  pumping-works  for  their  benefit, 
but  to  directly  poison  the  water  supply  of  the  whole  citv.  Many  thousands 
of  microscopical  examinations  of  the  filtrate  from  the  water  supply  and 
from  the  North  and  South  branches  during  the  past  eighteen  years,, before 
the  lake  water  was  polluted  by  the  rottenness  of  the  North  branch  as  well 
as  since,  have  fully  satisfied  the  writer  that,  with  an  occasional  exception  of 
a  few  days  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  more  than  seven-eighths  of  the  im- 
purities of  the  lake  water  are  derived  directly  from  the  North  branch 
through  the  Fullerton  avenue  conduit. 

Second  only   in   quality  is   quantity.     The   first  and  principal   object  of 
water- works  in  a  city  is  to  give  to  our  families  a  full  and  constant  supply  of 


28 

pure  water  for  all  household  and  sanitary  purposes,  and  it  should  be  fur- 
nished to  this  class  of  consumers  in  constant  and  liberal  supply  and  at  the 
lowest  possible  cost.  Secondly,  the  fire  department.  After  these  wants  are 
fully  supplied,  and  not  until  then,  should  water  be  supplied  bv  tiie  citv  for 
any  other  purposes  whatever.  But  apparently  our  city  authorities  have 
heretofore,  to  a  considerable  extent,  reversed  this  order,  and  the  steain 
pumps  all  over  the  city  have  been  taking  such  vast  quantities  of  water  from 
the  street  mains  with  which  to  run  elevators,  distilleries,  breweries,  glucose 
works,  etc.,  that  thousands  of  families,  especially  those  living  on  second  and 
third  floors  in  apartment  and  other  buildings,  have  for  weeks  at  a  time  been 
unable,  from  morning  until  evening,  to  get  from  their  faucets  one  drop  of 
water  to  quench  their  thirst  or  cleanse  a  closet;  and  these  families  are 
obliged  to  pay  high  water  rates,  whether  they  get  any  water  or  not.  We 
are  now  promised  a  better  supply,  and  it  is  earnestly  hoped,  and  the  welfare 
of  the  city  demands  that  this  promise  be  truthfullj-  kept,  and  that  its  puritv 
be  restored  and  protected. 

Yours  truly, 

B.  W.  Thomas. 


The  following  letters  were  received  by  Mr.  B.  W.  Thomas,  concerning 
the  foregoing,  and  handed  to  the  committee  for  publication : 

Chicago,  Aug.  20,  1SS4. 

My  Dear  Sir: — I  have  read  the  article  in  Sunday's  Times,  of  the  17th 
inst.  I  think  the  paper  is  very  timely,  and  I  have  no  doubt  of  the  correct- 
ness of  its  statements.  It  is  certainly  true,  that  pumping  from  the  North 
Branch  into  the  lake  is  little  less  than  madness. 

I  will  write  something  to  the  Tribune,  in  course  of  a  day  or  two,  supple- 
menting and  endorsingyour  paper,  and  I  shall  be  glad  to  help  "  stir  up  "  the 
water  question,  in  any  way  I  can.  We  ought  to  have  the  best,  the  most 
abundant,  the  purest,  and  the  cheapest  water  supply  of  any  great  city  in 
the  world.  Yours  truly, 

I.  N.  Danforth. 


Chicago,  Aug.  27,  1S84. 
B.  W.  Thomas,  Esq.  : 

My  Dear  Sir: — Your  "clipping"  from  the  "Chicago  Times"  at  hand 
to-day.  I  have  just  returned  from  Wisconsin.  I  most  heartily  endorse 
3'our  views  as  to  "  what  we  drink,"  and  am  satisfied  that  you  have  not  in 
any  way  overdrawn  or  over-estimated  either  the  facts  or  the  apparently 
threatening  danger.  In  my  judgment,  as  expressed  in  the  daily  press,  three 
or  four  years  ago,  the  P'ullerton  avenue  conduit  and  the  Bridgeport  pump- 
ing works,  both  are  hopeless  failures  as  to  the  purpose  for  which  they  were 
constructed;  neither  the  one  or  the  other  are  of  any  benefit  whatever,  more 
than  other  improvements  that  are  looked  upon  as  monuments  of  engineer- 
ing skill.  Yours  truly, 

T.  D.  Williams. 


29 

Chicago,  Aug.  22,  1884. 

My  Dear  Sir  :  —  I  have  carefully  read  your  article  published  in  Sunday's 
Times,  17th  Inst.,  and  heartily  subscribe  to  every  word  of  it.  Thousands 
and  thousands  of  lives  will  be  sacritied  in  this  city,  from  the  causes  to  which 
you  refer,  before  one  of  the  only  things  is  done  which  will  remedy  the  diffi- 
culty, and  perhaps  not  till  some  terrible  epidemic  sweeps  over  the  city,  will 
the  authorities  wake  up  to  the  dangers.  The  plan  you  promise  as  a  remedy 
would  improve  if  quite  not  obviate  the  danger,  at  least  for  the  present; 
but  I  am  of  the  opinion  that  sooner  or  later  the  city  will  be  obliged  to  do 
what  it  should  have  done  twent}'  years  ago,  namely :  bring  the  water  for 
city  consumption  from  fifteen  miles  at  least,  north  beyond  any  possible 
chance  of  contamination  for  all  time. 

Very  sincerely  yours, 

Chas.  W.  Purdy. 


Chicago,  Aug.  25th,  1884. 
B.  W.  Thomas,  Esq.: 

Dear  Sir: — Your  esteemed  favor  of  the  22d  inst.,  enclosing  an  article 
from  your  pen  on  our  water  supply,  is  at  hand.  I  had  previously  read  the 
article,  when  it  appeared,  and  I  have  taken  pleasure  in  reading  it  again.  In 
the  main,  I  agree  with  you.  I  believe  that  the  FuUerton  avenue  conduit  is 
more  or  less  contaminating  our  drinking  water,  and  I  am  strongly  of  the 
opinion  that  it  would  be  wise  to  stop  its  present  action  in  some  way.  I 
have  examined  our  water  quite  frequently  during  the  past  ten  years,  and  my 
tests  show  that,  year  by  year,  it  is  growing  somewhat  less  pure.  I  do  not, 
however,  believe  that  the  water  is  at  present  unwholesome,  at  least  to  the 
degree  that  it  is  commonly  supposed  to  be.  Its  quality,  unquestionably, 
might  be  improved,  and  it  ought  to  be;  but,  yet  I  do  not  think  that  the 
water  has  at  present  nearly  reached  the  danger  line,  except,  possibly,  at  cer- 
tain unfavorable  times  in  the  year.  But  the  water  appears  yearly  to  be 
o-rowing  worse,  and  the  sooner  something  rational  is  done  with  the  Fullerton 
avenue  conduit  and  other  contaminators,  the  better. 

Yours  respectfully, 

Walter  S.  Haines. 


Chicago,  Aug.  22,  18S4. 
B.  W.  Thomas,  Esq.  : 

Dear  Sir: — I  have  carefully  read  your  communication  to  the  Sunday 
Times,  regarding  the  pumping  of  the  water  from  the  North  Branch  of  the 
Chicago  river  into  the  lake.  I  am  in  entire  accord  with  the  views  therein 
expressed,  as  to  the  damage  done  by  it  to  our  water  supply.  I  have  always 
regarded  the  pollution  thus  produced  as  both  disgusting  and  dangerous. 
That  disease  and  deaths  have  resulted  from  it,  I  have  no  doubt. 

Respectfully, 

W.  H.  Byford. 


30 

Chicago,  Aug.  23,  1884. 
B.  W.  Thomas,  Esq.: 

Dear  Sir: — Thanks  for  your  article.  It  is  excellent;  cannot  be  over- 
drawn. The  simple  statement  of  changed  microscopic  character  of  the 
water  before  and  since  the  introduction  of  North  Branch  filth,  is  so  startling 
that  no  language  can  add  to  it.  Your  article  should  have  been  headed  vmr- 
der.  We  do  not  use  water  at  home  for  any  purpose,  until  it  has  been  been 
boiled.  Yours  truh , 

Henry  W.  Filler. 


Chicago,  Aug.  19,  1S84. 
B   W.  Thomas: 

Dear  Sir: — I  have  carefully  read  your  paper  in  the  Times,  and  agree 
with  you  in  every  particular.  It  is  criminal,  on  the  part  of  the  city,  to 
pump  any  water  from  the  North  Branch  into  the  lake.  Some  tiine,  under 
certain  conditions,  it  will  breed  a  pestilence.  Yours, 

E.  M.  Hale. 


Chicago,  Aug.  23,  1884. 
B.  VV.  Thomas,  E,sq.  : 

My  Dear  Sir: — Your  courteous  favor  of  the  20th  inst.,  with  accom- 
panying cutting  from  "  Sunday  Times,"  on  our  water  supply,  is  dulv  re- 
ceived. I  read  the  article  when  first  published,  and  have  just  finished  read- 
ing it  again.  I  have  not  had  opportunity  of  verifying  your  statement  of 
facts  concerning  the  matter;  but,  assuming  their  correctness,  I  endorse 
your  views  and  conclusions  most  fully.  But,  I  fe  w  you  will  hardly  succeed 
in  correcting  the  evil.  Many  persons  are  much  mote  particular  about  the 
quality  of  their  whiskey  than  of  their  drinking  water;  and  unfortunately 
this  remark  applies  to  some  of  those  you  have  to  deal  with. 

Yours  \  ery  respectt'ullv, 

A.  Reeves  Jacksox. 


Chicago,  Aug.  21,  18S4. 
B.  W.  Thomas,  Esq.: 

Dear  Sir  : — I  had  already  read,  with  interest, your  article  in  the  '  Times," 
of  Sunday  the  17th  inst.  I  did  not  think  it  too  strong;  on  the  contrary, 
with  your  knowledge  of  the  case  and  acquaintance  in  t'hicago,  you  might 
have  been  more  severe,  and  with  justice  too.  I  have  not  been  here  long 
enough  to  be  known  by  many  men  of  prominence,  and  consequently  what 
I  would  say  might  not  go  very  far. 

I  agree  with  you  that  the  North  Branch  nuisance  should  be  stopped,  but 
the  publication  of  chemical  analyses  cannot  do  it.  It  can  only  be  done  by 
the  determination  of  public-spirited  citizens  who  know  the  law  and  how  to 
enforce  it.  You  are  in  a  position  to  push  the  matter,  and  I  hope  to  hear  of 
your  doing  it.     I  will  be  glad  to  give  my  aid  when  possible. 

Yours  very  truly, 

J.  H.  Long. 


31 

Chicago,  Aug.  21,  1884. 
B.  W.  Thomas,  Esq.: 

My  Dear  Sir: — Have  read  carefully  your  article  in  the  Times,  of  the 
17th  inst.  I  most  cordially  and  heartily  agree  with  e\'er\- statement  therein 
made  concerning  the  contaminating  influence  of  the  Fullerton  avenue 
pumping  works  upon  our  water  supply.  I  do  not  think  that  you  have 
exaggerated,  in  the  least,  the  deleterious  effects  of  the  same.  By  a  singular 
coincidence  I  was,  at  the  time  of  the  receipt  of  your  note,  engaged  upon  a 
brief  article  setting  forth  the  same  facts,  though  less  elaborately.  I  think 
that  our  local  physicians  do  not  realize  to  what  extent  our  drinking  water  is 
responsible  for  the  production  and  aggravation  of  many  disorders,  especiallv 
the  acute  intestinal  troubles  which  have  been  so  prevalent  for  several  weeks, 
and  occur  every  year.  In  treating  such  disorders  I  always  prohibit  the  use 
of  the  lake  water  for  drinking  purposes,  unless  previously  boiled;  and 
always  recommend  the  substitution  of  one  of  the  purer  spring  waters. 

The  only  portion  of  the  article,  which  I  would  hesitate  to  endorse,  is  that 
which  says:  "It  would  seem  that  the  city  authorities,  for  the  accommo- 
dation of  a  few  interested  parties,  are  willing  not  only  to  tax  our  citizens  to 
build  a  conduit  and  run  pumping  works  for  their  benefit,  but  to  directly 
poison  the  water  supply  of  the  whole  city."  ^ 

As  to  the  fact  of  the  "poisoning,"  there  can  be  no  doubt;  the  implication 
that  it  is  done  to  gratify  certain  private  individuals,  may  be  true,  though  I 
have  no  knowledge  upon  that  point  myself,  and  I  only  regret  that  there  is 
so  little  appreciation  of  the  subject  among  the  scientific  and  medical  men 
of  the  city  that  the  matter  will  scarcely  receive  the  attention  which,  in  the 
interest  of  the  public  health,  it  deserves. 

Very  sincerely  and  respectfully  yours, 

W.  T.  Belfield. 


Chicago,  Aug.  22,  iSS^. 
B.  W.  Thomas,  Esq.  : 

Dear  Sir  : — I  have  read  the  article  in  the  Sunday  Times,  of  the  lytb 
inst.,  when  it  cam'e  out,  and  regarded  it  as  a  good  one.  There  are  few  things 
about  Chicago  more  revolting  to  our  senses  than  the  sight  of  that  \ast  out- 
pouring of  filth  into  the  lake  opposite  Lincoln  Park  and  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  water  works.  Many  people  notice  this  discoloration  of  the 
water  without  knowing  the  meaning  of  it.  Such  articles  as  yours  will  help 
to  enlighten  thein.  This  subject  ought  to  be  agi'ated  in  the  papers  in 
various  shapes  until  it  is  clearly  imderstood  by  the  public  at  large,  and  then 
some  practical  and  radical  remedy  for  the  existing  evils  will  be  applied. 

Whether  the  ones  you  have  suggested  are  the  best,  I  am  unable  to  say ; 
that  the  otherwise  good  and  wholesome  water  supply  of  the  city  is  now 
seriously  polluted,  by  its  own  sewage,  is  a  well  established  fact. 

Very  truly, 

W.  H.  For  WOOD. 


32 

Chicago,  Aug. 
My  Dear  Sir: — Your  article  in  the  Times,  of  March  17th,  deals  with  a 
problem  which  ought  to  engage  the  attention  of  every  citizen  of  Chicago. 
The  matter  should  be  kept  constantly  before  the  public  until  some  remedy 
for  the  great  evil  is  found.  I  think  there  can  be  no  difference  of  opinion 
among  sanitarians  as  to  the  impropriety  of  pumping  our  sewage  into  the 
lake  at  any  point  in  front  of  the  city,  but  the  damages  to  health  are  largely 
increased,  when  at  the  FuUerton  avenue  conduit  the  discharge  is  in  such 
near  proximity  to  the  source  of  the  water  supply.  In  fact  it  is  hardly  pos- 
sible to  exaggerate  these  dangers.  I  have  no  doubt  but  that  our  death 
rates,  as  well  as  the  amount  of  sickness  in  the  city,  is  materially  increased 
by  this  violation  of  sanitary  law.  Very  truly  yours, 

H.  A.  Johnson. 


Reprt  of  tbe  Coinniittee  on  Tlealres  auil  PuWic  Mlilm 


OP  THE 


CITIZENS'  Association, 


ox 


Heating  and  Ventilation 


OF  THE 


PUBLIC  SCHOOL  BUILDINGS 


,0P 


cmc-^o-o. 


OOTOBEI?,-      1885, 


CHICAGO: 
ROOMS,  is  MERCHANTS'  BUILDING. 

1885. 


Citizens'  Association  of  Cliicago. 


ESTABLISHED  1874. 


EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE,  1885. 


EDWIN  LEE  BROWN, 

President. 

A.  A.  CARPENTER, 

MARX  WINEMAN, 

EDSON  KEITH, 

M.  A.  RYERSON, 

A.  F.  SEEBERGER, 

MARSHALL  FIELD, 


FRANCIS  B.  PEABODY, 

Vice-President. 

JOHN  L.  THOMPSON, 

MAX  A.  MEYER, 

J.  J.  GLESSNER, 

A.  W.  KINGSLAND, 

R.  T.  CRANE, 

J.   HARLEY  BRADLEY, 


MURRY   NELSON. 


GEO.  SCHNEIDER, 

Treasurer. 


J.  C.  AMBLER, 

Secretary. 


Kooms,  35  Merchants'  Building. 


GEO.  K.  IIAZLirr  fi  CO.,  I'RIN  PHRS,  172  A.VD  174  CLARK  STREET. 


REPORT 


OF    THE 


COMMITTEE  OF  W  CITIZENS'  ASSOCIATION 


ON 


jppEj^T^g  WB  PUBLIC  BamDI^Gg. 


To  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Citizens'  Association  oj 
Chicago: 

The  Committee  on  Theaters  and  Public  Buildinj^s  re- 
spectfully report  the  result  of  their  investigations  for  the 
year  1884-5  ^s  follows: 

Our  attention  was  called,  early  in  the  year,  by  resolution 
of  the  Executive  Committee,  to  the  sanitary  condition  of 
the  Public  Schools.  This,  as  far  as  the  Association  is  con- 
cerned is  a  new  subject.  Your  committee  accepted  the 
task  with  alacrity  ;  but  as  a  matter  so  extensive  and  import- 
ant could  not  receive  the  detailed  attention  required  of  it, 
if  considered  in  all  its  branches,  we  have  confined  our- 
selves to  the  vital  subject  of  heating  and  ventilation,  reserv- 
ing for  a  future  occasion  the  subject  of  drainage  and  proper 
exits  in  case  of  fire. 

As  the  work  involved  detailed  and  repeated  examinations 
and  the  collection  of  valuable  statistics,  your  committee 
were  glad  to  be  able  to  secure  the  expert  assistance  of  C. 
C.  Kemble,  an  architect  of  experience  in  such  matters,  now 
retired  from  professional  practice.  Mr.  Kemble  was  also 
requested  to  take  such  notes  as  might  be  valuable,  regard- 


4 

ing  the  heating  and  ventilation  of  the  churches  of  the  city, 
and  to  collect  any  information  that  inight  come  in  his  way 
concerning  the  minor  Theaters  and  Public  Halls.  The 
ground  was  laid  out  but  not  fully  covered.  It  is  hoped, 
however,  that  the  information  obtained  regarding  the  heat- 
ing and  ventilation  of  the  schools  will  be  of  value  for  future 
reference,  and  will  be  supplemented  by  the  labors  of  future 
committees,  especially  with  regard  to  the  drainage  of  the 
schools  and  their  exit  openings. 

As  showing  the  nature  of  the  work  and  how  it  has  thus 
far  been  carried  out,  we  here  append  a  letter  received  from 
Mr.  Kemble  at  an  early  stage  of  the  investigation. 

Chicago,  III.,  Dec.  31,  1884. 

To  P.    B.    Wight,    Esq.,  CJiairman   of  the    Committee    on 
Theatres,  etc.,  Citizens'  Association,  Chicago. 

Sir  : — I  would  report  that,  before  beginning  the  work 
designed  by  your  committee,  of  inspecting  the  minor  thea. 
tres,  concert  halls  of  inferior  character,  churches  and  school 
houses,  I  was  of  the  opinion  that  the  same  could  be  more 
expeditiously  accomplished  by  arranging  a  list  of  the 
churches  and  school  houses  situated  in  the  same  district. 

To  this  end  your  secretary,  on  the  3rd  inst.,  furnished  me 
with  a  letter  addressed  to  J.  R.  Doolittle,  Jr.,  President  of 
the  Board  of  Education,  requesting  permission  for  a  repre- 
sentative of  your  committee  to  inspect  the  school  buildings 
under  his  control,  "with  regard  to  their  ventilation  and 
sanitary  condition,"  which  letter  I  handed  to  Mr.  Doolittle, 
who,  after  reading  the  communication,  inquired  of  me  more 
fully  as  to  the  nature  of  the  inspection  and  the  intentions  of 
your  committee  in  the  premises;  saying,  that  if  permission 
were  given  by  the  Board  of  Education  to  inspect  the  school 
buildings,  and  the  result  of  such  inspections  should  receive 
publicity  in  such  manner  as  might  create  a  panicky  feeling 
in  the  minds  of  the  public,  as  to  the  insufficiency  of  venti- 
lation and  other  matters  relating  to  the  sanitary  condition 


5 

of  some  of  the  buildings,  he  would  object  to  such  inspection 
being  made;  that  the  board  recognized  the  fact  that  de- 
fective ventilation  did  exist  in  a  number  of  their  buildings  ; 
that  they  had  the  matter  fully  in  hand,  and  were,  by  the  aid 
of  their  architect,  making  examinations  and  endeavoring  to 
correct,  by  means  within  their  power,  any  defects  prejudi- 
cial to  the  comfort  and  health  of  the  pupils. 

In  reply  I  stated,  that  so  far  as  I  was  informed,  it  was  not 
the  intention  of  the  Citizens'  Association  Committee  to  inter- 
fere with  or  prejudice  the  labors  of  the  Board  of  Education  ; 
that  possibly  the  Committee  might  make  some  sug- 
gestions which  would  be  of  service  to  the  Board.  During 
this,  and  at  a  subsequent  interview  relating  to  the  subject, 
Mr.  Doolittle  was  very  courteous,  and  informed  me,  when 
retiring,  that  he  would  call  the  attention  of  the  board 
to  the  request  of  your  committee  at  his  earliest  opportunity 
and  report  the  action  taken. 

On  the  6th  inst.,  your  secretary  received  a  communication 
from  Mr.  Doolittle,  informing  him  that  the  Committee  on 
Buildings  and  Grounds  would,  on  the  8th  inst.,  inspect  the 
ventilation,  etc.,  of  the  Elizabeth  Street  School  House,  and  on 
behalf  of  the  committee,  inviting  a  representative  of  the 
Citizens'  Association  to  be  present  and  participate  in  the 
inspection  of  the  building. 

By  direction  of  your  secretary,  I  met  the  committee  and 
did  participate  in  the  inspection. 

Your  secretary  not  being  informed  of  any  further  action 
taken  by  the  President  of  the  Board  of  Education,  on  the 
1 5th  inst.,  I  called  upon  Mr.  Stensland,  Chairman  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Buildings  and  Grounds,  requesting  him  to  call 
the  attention  of  the  board  to  the  request  of  the  committee. 
Mr.  Stensland  expressed  himself  as  not  unfavorable  to  an 
inspection  being  made  by  others  than  his  own  committee, 
and  said  he  would  introduce  the  subject  at  the  meeting  of 
the  board  to  be  held  that  afternoon,  which  promise  he 
complied  with. 


I  am  not  in  possession  of  a  copy  of  the  resolution  as 
passed  by  the  Board  of  Education  granting  the  request  of 
your  committee,  but  have  been  informed  by  Mr.  Doolittle, 
that  after  some  discussion,  permission  was  granted  any 
"  reputable  citizen  "  to  inspect  any  of  the  school  buildings, 
provided  he  has  the  consent  of,  and  is  accompanied  by  the 
member  of  the  Board  of  Education  in  whose  district  the 
buildings  are  situated  ;  provided  further,  that  said  inspection 
shall  not  interfere  with  the  work  of  the  school  during  school 
hours. 

I  prepared,  accordingly,  a  schedule  of  the  names  of  the 
buildings  as  assigned  individually  to  the  several  members 
comprising  the  Board  of  Education,  and  have  called  upon 
all,  seeing  six  of  the  members  personally,  received  their 
consent  for  the  inspection  to  be  made  by  a  representative 
of  the  Citizens'  Association,  and  a  promise  to  accompany 
me  at  such  times  as  best  suited  their  convenience,  individu- 
ally. 

It  was  suggested  that  the  Christmas  vacation  would  be  a 
convenient  season  so  far  as  non-interference  with  the  work 
of  the  schools  would  be  concerned. 

Acting  upon  this  suggestion  I  made  the  inspection  of 
four  buildings  on  the  North  Side,  and  while  this  work  was 
in  progress  I  received  from  a  member  of  the  Citizens'  As- 
sociation Executive  Committee  advice  and  suggestions  for 
future  guidance  in  the  work  (which  are  given  in  detail  in  this 
report),  and  realizing  that  defective  ventilation  can  be  more 
readily  detected  during,  or  immediately  after  school  hours,  I 
postponed,  after  an  interview  with  this  gentleman,  further 
examination  of  the  school  houses  until  after  the  5th  proximo. 

My  experience  with  the  gentlemen  of  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation whom  I  have  met,  induces  the  belief  that  each  will 
give  his  presence  during  the  inspection,  and  his  assistance 
in  obtaining  such  information  relating  to  the  school  houses 
as  is  desired  by  your  committee. 


Your  further  wishes  to  inspect  some  of  the  churches 
of  the  city,  "  with  reference  to  their  system  of  ven- 
tilation and  their  arrangements  for  safety  in  case  of,  and 
the  precautions  against,  fire,''  were  made  known  by  letters, 
through  your  secretary,  addressed  to  Bishop  McLaren  of 
the  Episcopal  Church,  Arch-Bishop  Feehan  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  and  Rev.  Mr.  Hitchcock  of  the  Methodist 
Church.  Bishop  McLaren  granted  permission  to  inspect 
such  church  buildings  as  were  under  his  jurisdiction,  refer- 
ring to  the  rectors  of  the  other  churches  of  his  diocese  for 
further  permission.  Arch-Bishop  Feehan  has  not,  at  this  date, 
granted  the  desired  permission,  but  anticipating  a  favorable 
answer,  I  have  not  neglected  some  of  the  churches  in  his 
diocese,  visiting  the  Cathedral  at  a  tim.e  when  a  large  con- 
gregation was  in  attendance,  and  several  others.  I  have  ob- 
tained the  consent  of  a  number  of  pastors  to  inspect  their 
churches,  and  in  several  cases  have  found  intelligent  sextons 
in  charge,  from  whom  I  obtained  information  of  service, 
which  in  my  report  will  more  fully  appear. 

I  have  made  little  progress  in  the  inspection  of  minor 
theatres,  etc. 

To  gain  entrance  to  such  places  it  is  necessary  to  express 
the  purpose  before  obtaining  consent  of  the  owners,  and 
having  no  authority  except  that  given  by  your  committee, 
I  have  been  prudent,  and  careful  to  give  no  offence. 

It  is  probable  that  I  can  only  obtain  the  consent  of  the 
members  of  the  Board  of  Education  to  be  be  present  in  the 
inspection  of  school  buildings  at  12  o'clock  M.,  and  4  o'clock 
P.  M.,  the  hours  suggested  by  Mr.  Collier,  of  the  board,  as 
those  which  would  not  interfere  with  the  school  hours.  In 
this  event,  the  progress  of  the  work  will  be  slow,  but  I  will 
endeavor  to  arrange  other  work,  of  theatres,  etc.,  so  that  no 
time  may  be  lost. 

Very   respectfully, 

C.  C.  KEMBLE. 


INVESTIGATION 


OP   THE 


ling  aiii  leiililiiii  of  llie  Polilic 


ligs, 


Before  considering  the  ventilation  of  the  pubHc  schools 
and  the  objects  to  be  obtained  by  this  investigation,  the 
question  suggests  itself,  "  What  is  it  that  we  desire  to  effect 
by  ventilation,  and  how  may  we  define  good  ventilation?" 
assuming  that  perfect  ventilation  does  not  exist.  We  quote 
to  the  point,  Dr.  Billings,  U.  S.  Army  Surgeon,  a  modern 
author  of  great  practical  experience,  who  says:  "Ventila- 
tion is  ordinarily  defined  to  be  the  removal  of  foul  and  the 
introduction  of  fresh  air,  but  this  gives  a  very  insufficient 
idea  of  what  is  meant  by  the  word.  Ventilation  is  securing 
a  change  of  air ;  in  a  great  majority  of  cases  it  includes  a 
thorough  mixing  of  pure  with  impure  air,  in  order  that  the 
latter  might  be  diluted  to  a  certain  standard.  *  *  * 
"  It  does  not  attempt  to  secure  in  a  building  or  room,  air  as 
pure  as  that  outside,  but  only  air  which  shall  contain  but  a 
certain  proportion  of  impurity — for  all  the  air  with  which 
our  ventilating  appliances  are  to  deal  contains  impurities. 
Offensive  or  poisonous  gases  of  all  kinds,  can  be  diluted  by 
fresh  air,  just  as  solutions  of  arsenic  or  strychnine  can  be 
by  pure  water,  until  a  mouthful  of  such  diluted  air  or  fluid 
is  neither  especially  hurtful  or  unpleasant ;''  this  Dr.  Billings 
calls  ^^^<3^  ventilation.  He  further  says  :  " /^(?r/<?^/ ventila- 
tion can  only  be  said  to  have  been  secured  in  an  inhabited 
room  when  any  and  every  person  in  the  room  takes 
into  his  lungs  at  each  respiration,  air  of  the  same  composi- 
tion as  that  surrounding  the  building,  and  no  part  of  which 
has  recently  been  in  his  own  lungs  or  those  of  his  neighbors, 


or  which  consists  of  products  of  combustion  generated  in 
the  building,  while  at  the  same  time  he  feels  no  currents  or 
draughts  of  air,  and  is  perfectly  comfortable  as  regards 
temperature.  Very  rarely  indeed  can  such  perfect  ventila- 
tion be  secured  if  the  number  of  persons  in  the  room  ex- 
ceeds two  or  three.  The  amount  of  air  required  to  secure 
this  perfect  ventilation  is  very  great.  Take,  for  instance,  a 
room  twelve  feet  square,  and  suppose  that  the  air  in  it  is  to 
move  uniformily  upward  at  the  rate  of  six  inches  per 
second  ;  this  is  equivalent  to  an  air  supply  of  seventy-two  feet 
per  second.  Theoretically,  it  is  true,  that  if  the  air  moves 
regularly  and  steadily  upward  at  all  points  in  the  room  at 
the  rate  of  even  one  inch  per  second,  it  might  be  sufficient ; 
but  practically,  at  least  six  times  this  velocity  is  required  to 
overcome  disturbances  caused  by  opening  doors,  etc.  Proba- 
bly this  statement  of  air  supply  required,  gives  no  definite 
idea  as  to  its  cost,  and  it  may  be  more  fully  understood  by 
considering  that  it  would  require  at  least  thirty  times  as 
much  coal  to  heat  a  room  thus  supplied,  as  would  be  used 
for  heating  a  room  of  the  same  size  having  only  the  ordinary 
heating  and  ventilating  arrangements."  Dr.  Billings  again 
says  that  he  has  never  seen  but  three  or  four  attempts  made 
in  the  direction  of  perfect  ventilation,  and  the  cost  of  these 
attempts  was  not  a  matter  of  consideration. 

Assuming  that  good  ventilation  is  possible,  some  standard 
for  healthy  air  supply  required  for  each  pupil  for  a  given 
time  should  be  adopted.  There  is  a  great  diversity  of 
opinion  among  practical  men  on  this  subject.  We  quote 
from  the  Sanitary  Engineer  of  March  i,  1880,  the  report  of 
the  committee  of  award  in  school  house  competition,  New 
York,  viz.: 

"  It  is  the  opinion  of  the  committee  that  a  public  school 
building  in  a  large  and  densely  populated  city  should  possess 
the  following  qualifications :  *  *  *  * 

"  In  each  class  room  not  less  than  fifteen  square  feet 
of  floor  area  should  be  allotted  to  each  pupil.         *     *     * 


10 

"The  provisions  for  ventilation  should  be  such  as  to 
provide  for  each  person  in  a  class  room  not  less  than  thirty 
cubic  feet  of  fresh  air  per  minute,  which  amount  must  be 
introduced  and  thoroughly  distributed  without  creating  un- 
pleasant draughts,  or  causing  any  two  parts  of  the  room  to 
differ  in  temperature  more  than  2°  F.,  or  the  medium 
temperature  to  exceed  70''  F.  This  means  that  for  a  class 
room  to  contain  fifty-six  pupils,  twenty-eight  cubic  feet  of 
air  per  second  should  be  continually  furnished,  distributed 
and  removed  during  school  sessions. 

"  The  velocity  of  the  incoming  air  should  not  exceed  two 
feet  per  second  at  any  point  where  it  is  liable  to  strike  on 
the  person. 

"  The  heating  of  fresh  air  should  be  effected  either 
by  hot  water  or  by  low-pressure  steam. 

"The  fresh  air  should  be  introduced  near  the  win- 
dows ;  the  foul  air  should  be  removed  by  flues  in  the 
opposite  wall." 

It  is  presumed  the  above  represents  the  maximum  of  re- 
quirements, and  is  based  on  the  requirements  o.f  zero 
weather.  We  do  not  find  any  of  the  school  buildings  in 
Chicago  up  to  this  standard.  Another  author  (Box)  esti- 
mates the  fresh  air  supply  for  inhabited  rooms  to  be  from 
three  and  one-half  to  five  cubic  feet  per  minute  for  each 
person,  as  follows : 

"  An  ordinary  adult  when  not  in  exercise,  takes  twenty 
respirations  per  minute  of  the  capacity  of  forty  cubic  inches 
each,  thus  vitiating  about  twenty-eight  cubic  feet  of  air  per 
hour;  added  to  this  is  the  quantity  of  air  saturated  by  the 
moisture  evolved  from  the  skin  and  lungs  to  be  considered, 
which  is  placed  at  187  cubic  feet  at  62°  Fah.,  thus  requiring 
215  cubic  feet  per  hour,  or  three  and  one-half  cubic  feet  per 
minute  of  fresh  air  to  maintain  the  purity  of  the  room  in 
winter  weather." 


1 1 

Billings  says  that  "  it  should  be  distinctly  understood 
that,  so  far  as  ventilation  is  concerned,  the  number  of  per- 
sons to  be  supplied  with  air,  and  the  quantity  of  air  to  be 
allowed  for  each,  are  much  more  important  factors  in  the 
problem  than  the  cubic  space.  A  certain  amount  of  space 
is  necessary  to  secure  the  required  change  of  air,  without 
perceptible,  or  at  least  uncomfortable  currents  or  draughts, 
and  under  ordinary  circumstances  the  larger  the  space  per 
person  the  easier  it  is  to  secure  ventilation  without  discom- 
fort." 

As  to  this  "  certain  amount  "  of  cubic  space  required  for 
purposes  of  good  ventilation,  Dr.  De  Chaumont  gives  it  in 
a  school  room  at  250  cubic  feet  per  pupil.  We  mention 
these  authorities  only  for  the  purpose  of  comparing  some  of 
the  qualities  sanitarians  say  should  be  possessed  by  a  school 
building  to  secure  good  ventilation,  with  what  actually 
exists  in  the  school  buildings  of  this  city,  and  we  are  of  the 
opinion  that  if  we  take  some  of  the  more  modern  buildings  for 
examples,  we  will  find  a  majority  of  them  have  good  venti- 
lation, heated  either  by  hot-air  furnaces  or  steam,  although 
not  in  any  particular  up  to  the  standard  as  above  quoted,  as 
as  regards  fresh  air  supply,  square  feet  of  floor  area,  and 
cubic  feet  of  space  per  pupil,  the  average  being  (for  mild 
weather)  about  five  cubic  feet  per  minute  for  fresh  air  sup- 
ply, about  14^  square  feet  floor  space  and  about  211  cubic 
feet  space  per  pupil. 

The  following  are  the  suggestions  referred  to  in  Mr. 
Kemble's  letter  as  having  been  made  to  him  with  regard  to 
the 

INVESTIGATION  OF  THE  VENTILATION  OF  PUBLIC 

SCHOOLS. 

The  object  to  be  obtained  by  this  investigation,  is  : 

First.  To  ascertain  whether  there  are  any  radical  defects 
in  the  ventilation  of  our  schools. 


12 


Second.     Whether  there  is  any  apparatus  that  will  appear 
to  accomplish  all  the  objects  desired,  both  in  ventilation  and 


warming. 


Third.  If  such  apparatus  can  be  constructed  and  applied 
at  a  cost  that  would  seem  to  be  reasonable  and  within  the 
means  of  the  Board  of  Education. 

Fourth.  Whether  the  board  have  departed  from  a  rea- 
sonably perfect  system  and  put  in  an  apparatus  that  is  im- 
perfect ;  and  what  the  difference  in  cost  is  between  the  per- 
fect and  the  defective  apparatus.  A  specific  answer  is 
given  to  this  in  the  appended  tables,  under  the  heading  of 
"  Cost  of  Warming." 

DIFFICULTIES    ENCOUNTERED    IN   OBTAINING    PERFECT 

VENTILATION. 

The  defects  in  most  systems  of  ventilation  are  more 
apparent  in  mild  weather  than  in  cold,  for  the  reason 
that  the  natural  action  of  all  flues  is  much  greater  in  the 
cold  weather,  as  there  is  then  so  much  more  difference  be- 
tween the  temperature  of  the  room  and  the  temperature 
outside,  which  difference  gives  an  increased  action  to  the 
flues.  As  an  illustration,  if  the  thermometer  outside  is  at 
zero  and  the  temperature  of  the  room  70°,  there  is,  of  course^ 
70  degrees  more  heat  inside  than  outside  to  influence  the  ac- 
tion of  the  flues.  But  if  the  temperature  outside  is  50°  and 
inside  70°,  there  is  only  a  difference  of  20  degrees  to 
produce  this  action,  or  2-7ths  of  the  ventilating  power. 
Any  person  paying  attention  to  this  subject  will  fully 
realize  that  the  great  difficulty  of  ventilating  with  any 
natural  system  is  during  mild  weather,  and  in  order  to  show 
the  defects,  all  tests  should  be  made  in  mild  weather.  In  cold 
weather,  the  flues  being  reasonably  well  constructed  and  ar- 
ranged in  combination  with  the  heating  apparatus  supply- 
ing warm  air,  will  usually  produce  all  tlie  ventilation  neces- 
sary. 

Still  another  difficulty  in  mild  weather  with  the  ordinary 
hot-air  heating  apparatus  is,  that  the  heating  and  ventila- 


13 

tion  are  inseparable  ;  that  is,  the  ventilation  depends  on  the 
heating;  and  in  mild  weather,  but  little  heat  being  needed, 
and  consequently  but  little  air  passing  through  the  hot-air 
register,  which  is  many  times  shut  off  entirely,  the  ventila- 
tion is  therefore  stopped. 

In  connection  with  a  heating  and  ventilating  appar- 
atus, where  the  ventilation  is  aided  by  furnace  stacks  go- 
ing through  ventilating  stacks,  the  ventilation  becomes  ex- 
ceedingly irregular,  on  account  of  the  furnace  being  very 
much  more  active  in  cold  than  in  moderate  weather. 

In  the  above  cases  of  natural  ventilation  it  is  very  largely 
affected  by  the  location  of  the  flues  in  inside  or  outside 
walls. 

Here  follows  a  schedule  of  the 

VARIOUS   SYSTEMS   NOW   IN   USE, 

which  we  omit  as  they  are  repeated  below. 

To  determine  the  condition  of  the  ventilation  in  a  school 
room,  it  will  be  best  to  visit  while  the  school  is  in  session, 
or  immediately  after  adjournment,  as  at  that  time  the  condi- 
tion of  the  atmosphere  would  be  apparent  to  the  nostrils. 

As  it  is  not  designed  to  test  the  ventilation  by  analysis, 
the  tests  in  most  of  these  schools  ought  to  be  taken  in 
mild  days ;  but  if  permission  is  not  given  to  make  this  ex- 
amination at  the  times  just  mentioned,  a  good  knowledge 
of  the  ventilation  can  be  obtained  by  observing  the  amount 
of  air  admitted  into  the  room  necessary  to  keep  the  tem- 
perature at  the  proper  degree,  and  by  observing  the  size  of 
the  ventilating  registers,  and  the  action  of  the  air  passing 
through  them,  with  a  wind  gauge  or  anemometer. 

In  connection  with  the  examination  there  should  be  esti- 
mates of  the  difference  in  cost  per  pupil,  per  year,  in  what 
are  found  to  be  the  best  and  the  poorest  ventilated  schools. 


14 

In  order  to  arrive  at  this,  it  will  be  necessary  to  take  into 
consideration  not  only  the  difference  in  fuel,  but  the  differ- 
ence in  interest  on  the  cost  of  the  apparatus,  difference  in 
repairs,  difference  in  cost  for  engineer  or  janitor,  and  differ- 
ence in  duration  of  apparatus. 

In  estimating  the  cost  of  any  different  apparatus,  take 
into  consideration  any  expense  that  is  applied  to  the 
construction  of  the  building  to  favor  one  apparatus  which 
would  not  be  necessary  yi  connection  with  another. 

IN  ACCORDANCE  WITH  THESE  SUGGESTIONS 

we  examined  the  various  systems  now  in  use  for  heating 
the  schools  as  given  to  us  in  the  schedule,  and  numbered 
I  to  IX. 

I.  "  Schools  in  temporary  locations  heated  by  stoves, 
with  no  provision  for  ventilation  except  windows." 

There  are  no  school  buildings  at  the  present  time  heated 
exclusively  by  stoves.  In  the  Burr  school  building,  two 
rooms  are  used  for  school  purposes,  and  are  heated  by 
stoves,  the  ventilation  being  from  double  sashes  in  the 
windows.  A  portion  of  the  basement  of  the  Ward  school 
building  is  also  used  for  school  purposes,  and  heated  by 
stoves,  with  no  other  means  of  ventilation,  than  by  the 
windows.  These  basement  rooms  are  only  used  by  reason 
of  the  pressure  for  accommodation  of  pupils.  It  is  the  inten- 
tion of  the  board  to  abandon  the  use  of  these  rooms  for 
school  purposes  as  soon  as  other  accommodations  are  pro- 
vided. 

II.  "  Schools  heated  by  stoves  having  arrangements 
for  ventilation." 

We  have  not  found  any  school  buildings  of  this  class,  and 
are  informed  there  are  none. 

III.  "Schools  heated  by  hot-air  furnaces,  and  venti- 
lated in  connection  with  unwarmed  ventilating  flues." 


15 

This  system  is  used  in  the  Irving,  Ogden,  Wells,  Webster, 
Keith,  Brannon,  Moscley,  Von  Humboldt,  Langley,  Arnold 
and  Calumet  Avenue  schools,  in  which  the  same  general 
results  in  heating  and  ventilation  are  obtained. 

The  Ogden  School  building  is  a  good  example  of  this 
system.  The  building  was  erected  in  1883,  is  three  stories 
high  and  has  eighteen  rooms;  average  size  of  each  room, 
28x34,  13-6  story;  number  of  sittings  to  each  room,  sixty- 
three;  whole  number  of  sittings,  1,134.  It  is  heated  by 
eight  hot-air  furnaces,  costing  $2,329.  The  cost  of  coal 
for  one  year  (only  soft  coal  used),  $650,  and  the  wages 
of  janitor  $1,080.  Cost  of  heating  and  janitor  service  per 
pupil,  $1.86. 

Each  furnace  has  separate  fresh  air  supply  from  ample  cold 
air  chamber  in  the  basement.  The  warm  air  is  introduced 
through  a  separate  flue  to  each  room,  the  opening,  twenty- 
six  inches  square,  placed  in  an  outside  wall  about  ten  feet 
above  the  level  of  floor,  and'  entirely  free  from  register  face. 
Each  corner  room  has  three  ventilating  flues,  with  12x15- 
inch  openings  placed  at  the  floor  line,  the  openings  not  ob- 
structed by  registers;  these  flues  are  in  the  outside  corners, 
and  independent  of  all  others  for  each  room.  Each  inside 
room  has  only  two  ventilating  flues,  placed  in  the  outside 
walls,  with  1 2x1 5-inch  openings.  The  ventilating  flues  are 
not  warmed;  they  terminate  above  the  roof  and  form,  in 
connection  with  the  pilasters,  an  architectural  feature  of  the 
building.'' 

Condition  of  weather  at  time  of  inspection — Barome- 
ter, 30.058;  thermometer,  36°;  humidity,  76 ;  wind,  south- 
west ;  cloudy. 

When  entering  a  room  on  the  northeast  side  of  the  build- 
ing, no  offensive  odor  was  detected.  Indeed  all  portions  of  the 
building  were  free  from  any  school  odor,  and  so  far  as  could 
be  observed  were  in  a  good  sanitary  condition.  The  area 
of  one  warm-air  inlet  is  6^6  square  inches.  The  area  of 
three  ventilating  outlets  is  540  square  inches,  or  i  36  square 


\6 

inches  more  area  for  warm  air  than  for  ventilation.  The  in- 
flux of  warm  air,  taking  the  average  in  four  corner  rooms, 
was  about  four  and  one-half  cubic  feet  per  minute  for  each 
pupil,  and  the  average  outflow  of  ventilation  was  about 
three  cubic  feet  per  minute,  per  pupil.  We  made  no  effort 
during  the  test  to  force  the  influx  of  warm  air,  but  accepted 
the  condition  of  the  temperature  of  the  room  (70°  F.).  At 
a  subsequent  visit  to  this  school  building,  when  the  temper- 
ature outside  was  45  "^  above  zero,  we  discovered  defects 
common  to  this  system,  which  usually  attend  it  in  mild 
weather. 

IV.  *'  Schools  heated  by  hot-air  furnaces,  with  ven- 
tilating flues  tvarniedy 

This  is  called  "central  shaft  system"  and  is  used  in  the 
old  Cottage  Grove  (two  buildings)  Division  and  Cleaver 
Streets,  Headley,  Kinzie,  Lawndale,  Lincoln  Street,  Long- 
fellow, Montefiore,  Pearson  Street,  Pickard,  Polk  Street, 
Scammon  (brick  building),  Sheldon,  Vedder  Street,  Walsh, 
Ward,  Wentworth  Avenue,  and  West  Fourteenth  Street 
schools. 

The  Ward  School  building  is  a  good  example  of  this  sys- 
tem. The  building  was  erected  in  1874,  is  three  stories 
high  and  contains  fifteen  rooms;  average  size  of  each  room 
28x32  feet,  13-6  feet  story;  number  of  sittings  to  each 
room,  sixty-two;  giving  about  14.45  square  feet  of  floor 
space  to  each  pupil ;  whole  number  of  sittings,  930.  It  is 
heated  by  five  new  furnaces  costing  $2,150.  The  cost  of 
coal  for  one  year,  approximated  (only  soft  coal  used)  $700, 
and  the  wages  of  janitor  $810.  Cost  of  heating,  etc.,  per 
pupil  given  in  the  table. 

During  the  past  year  the  furnaces  with  which  it  was 
heated  were  removed,  because  they  failed  to  perform  suc- 
cessfully the  service  required.  The  middle  partitions 
in  the  old  brick  smoke  stacks,  which  separated  the 
smoke  from  the  ventilating  flues,  were  removed,  and  a 
clear   inside  space  of  24x56   inches    was    thus    obtained    in 


each  stack.  A  metal  sinoke  pipe,  twelve  inches  in  diameter, 
is  placed  inside  of  each  stack,  through  which  the  smoke 
is  conducted  from  the  furnaces,  the  pipe  terminating 
about  three  feet  below  the  top  of  the  brickstack.  The 
custom  has  been  to  terminate  the  smoke  pipe  on  a  line  with 
the  top,  or  a  little  above  the  top  of  brick  stack  ;  and  the 
theory  for  the  departure  from  this  custom  is,  that  the  sud_ 
den  expansion  of  smoke  after  leaving  the  pipe  will  add  to 
the  draft  of  ventilation,  and  be  assisted  by  the  air  surround- 
ing the  smoke  pipe  in  a  more  rapid  discharge,  thus  prevent- 
ing a  return  of  smoke  or  particles  of  soot  when  the  furnaces 
are  not  actively  working.  The  plan  works  very  satis- 
factorily, and  is  an  improvement  over  the  other. 

V.  "  Schools  heated  by  direct  steam  pipes,  with  no 
regular  means  of  introducing  air,  but  with  ventilating  flues 
without  being  warmed." 

This  system  is  not  used  at  the  present  time  in  any  of  the 
school  buildings.  The  Skinner,  Newberry,  Moseley  and  old 
Wells,  originally  used  this  system,  but  have  been  changed  be- 
cause of  the  injurious  effects  of  direct  radiation  where  in- 
direct is  excluded. 

VI.  "  Schools  heated  by  partial  direct  radiation  with 
steam  pipes  and  partial  indirect  steam  pipes,  the  ventilation 
being  such  as  would  follow  from  the  introduction  of  warm 
air  from  indirect  steam  pipes." 

The  old  Moseley  and  old  Brown  schools  are  good  exam- 
ples of  this  system.  The  Moseley  was  erected  in  1856,  has 
twelve  rooms  and  764  sittings.  In  addition  to  the  direct  pipes 
placed  against  the  outer  walls,  each  room  has  one  vertical 
return  bend  radiator,  consisting  of  twelve  pipes,  placed 
against  the  outer  wall,  receiving  a  direct  supply  of  fresh  air 
from  the  outside,  through  a  12x18  inch  opening,  protected 
on  the  outside  by  a  quarter  circle  cast-iron  hood,  the  open- 
ing at  the  bottom  to  prevent  a  too  rapid  influx  of  air;  this 
opening  is  also  supplied  with  a  damper,  under  the  control  of 
the  teacher,  whereby  a  portion  only  of  the  fresh  air  supply 


i8 

can  be  admitted  or  shut  off  entirely.  The  ventilation  of 
this  building  is  defective,  evidently  from  the  faulty  con- 
struction of  the  flues.  Each  room  is  supplied  with  one 
opening,  12x21  inches,  placed  at  the  floor,  discharging  into 
a  flue,  common  for  three  rooms  as  they  occur  one  above  the 
other;  these  flues  terminate  in  a  room,  in  the  loft,  in  which 
is  placed  a  steam  radiator  consisting  of  fifty-two  pipes 
eighteen  inches  long.  At  this  point  we  found  the  draft  ex- 
tremely vigorous,  while  there  was  no  apparent  influx  of 
ventilation  from  any  of  the  rooms.  It  is  the  intention  of 
the  board  to  provide  new  ventilating  flues  during  the  com- 
ing summer  vacation. 

The  old  Brown  school  was  very  thoroughly  repaired  last 
summer.  One  direct  steam  radiator,  supplied  by  fresh  air 
through  an  18-inch  square  opening,  is  placed  in  each  room. 
We  found  the  ventilation  active  and  very  satisfactory. 

VII.  "  Schools  heated  wholly  by  indirect  steam  pipes, 
with  more  or  less  elaborate  arrangement  and  construction  of 
ventilating  flues." 

This  system  of  wholly  indirect  heating  is  used  in  the 
Carpenter  school  building,  but  it  is  the  intention  of  the 
board  to  provide  new  apparatus,  embracing  both  direct  and 
indirect  radiation. 

In  view  of  the  contemplated  changes  we  did  not  further 
consider  the  system  now  in  use. 

VIII.  ''Schools  in  which  the  steam-heating  apparatus 
is  constructed  under  the  indirect  system  entirely,  the  air  be- 
ing forced  into  the  rooms  by  a  fan,  in  combination  with  a 
common  register." 

The  old  Jones  school  used,  originally,  this  system  en- 
tirely, but  direct  pipes  have  been  introduced  to  some  extent 
in  such  rooms  as  require  more  heat. 

If  we  are  correctly  informed,  it  is  not  the  intention  of  the 
present  board  to  provide  for  an  entirely  indirect   system    of 


19 

radiation  in  any  of  the  new  buildings  contemplated  by  them. 
The  rigors  of  the  climate  demand  that  a  portion  of  the 
system  should  have  direct  radiation,  and  to  be  used  in  se- 
curing the  necessary  radiation  temperature  required  when 
the  school  session  begins,  and  then  the  direct  radiation  to  be 
shut  ofif,  and  indirect  only  used,  unless  extremely  cold 
weather  should   require  the  use  of  both. 

IX.  "Same  as  last  named,  except  in  the  construction 
of  the  register,  which  is  so  made  that  it  cannot  be  closed  in 
shutting  off  the  air,  but  if  the  room  becomes  too  warm  or 
cold,  so  arranged  that  by  adjusting  the  register  the  air 
will  come  in  at  a  lower  or  higher  temperature,  thus  not  in- 
terfering with  the  ventilation." 

A  good  example  of  this  system  is  the  Wallace  Street 
School.  The  deflector  is  so  arranged  that  a  supply  of  en- 
tirely cold  air,  or  partly  cold  and  partly  hot,  indeed  any 
desired  admixture  of  warm  and  cold  air  can  be  obtained  by 
the  inclination  of  the  valve  or  deflector.  This  seems 
to  be  an  admirable  system  if  intelligently  managed. 
The  rules  of  the  board  require  that  the  valves  shall 
be  entirely  under  the  control  of  the  engineer,  as  they 
are  in  the  majority  of  the  steam  heated  buildings.  We  are 
of  the  opinion  that  an  automatic  system,  if  possible,  should 
be  employed,  and  if  not  possible,  it  seems  that  the  judg- 
ment of  the  teacher  should  be  sufficient  to  determine  wiien 
it  is  necessary  to  change  the  temperature,  and  the  service 
performed  by  the  janitor  at  her  direction. 

SCHOOLS  HEATED  BY   DIRECT  AND  INDIRECT  STEAM 
SYSTEM  WITH  WARMED  STACKS  FOR  VENTI- 
LATION, AND  FAN. 

The  Wallace  Street  School  building  is  a  good  example  of 
this  system  as  regards  the  heating.  The  building  w.is 
erected  in  1881,  is  three  stories  high,  and  contains  fifteen 
rooms  ;  average  size  of  each  room,  27.K34  feet,  14-feet  story  ; 
number  of  sittings  to  each  room  sixty-three,  giving  abo  it 
14.50  square  feet  of  floor  space  to  each  pupil ;  whole  number 


20 

of  sittings,  945  ;  heated  by  steam  ;  two  tubular  boilers,  each 
forty-two  inches  by  fourteen  feet  long  (Woodman  &  Warner 
manufacturers),  costing  $6,000;  the  cost  of  coal  for  one  year 
$768,  and  the  wages  of  janitor  $1,200  for  one  year.  (See 
tables  for  cost  per  pupil.) 

During    extreme    cold  weather,   a  steam  pressure  of  fifty 
pounds  is  required  to  maintain  a  temperature  of  70°;  steam 
o-uage  registered  twenty-five  pounds  at  time  of  inspection.. 
The  fan  is  operated  much  of  the  time   during  school  hours. 
The  coils  for  indirect  radiation  are  arranged  in   cells  in  the 
basement ;  the  fresh  air  is  forced  over  the  heated  surface  and 
through  the  flues  by  the  fan.     Each  room  has  two  inlets  for 
warm  air,  placed  near  the  floor,  protected  by  a  hood  form- 
ing a  quarter  circle,  so  arranged  that  the  air,  at  its  entrance 
into  the  room,  will  be  deflected  to  the  floor  and  not  strike 
the  pupils  with  any  sensible  force.      Handles  for  controlling 
the  valves  are  within  the  control  of  the  teacher.     It  is  the 
intention  that  these  valves,  if  properly  adjusted  by  an  intel- 
ligent engineer,  will  give  any  admixture  of  fresh  and  warm 
air,  or  entirely  fresh  air  ;  this  feature  commends  itself,  when 
by  the  active  operation   of    the  fan   the    building  may   be 
thoroughly  flushed,  after  school  hours,  of  many  impurities. 
The  direct  radiating  pipes  are  placed  against  the  outer  walls 
under  the  windows,  and  are  only  used   when  cold  weather 
requires.      The   ventilation   consists   of   two   flues   for  each 
room,  the  inlets  at  the  floor,  one  in  an  outer  wall  and  one  in 
an  inner  wall,  opposite  each  other.     The  inlets  are  covered 
with    tracery-face    registers    (no    valves),    4x18  inches;  the 
actual  capacity  of  each  opening  is  about  forty-eight  square 
inches,  or  ninety-six  square  inches  of  ventilating  outlet   for 
each   room.     These   flues  are  conducted  under  the  floor  to 
two  brick  shafts,  which  are  heated  by  steam  pipes  placed 
eight  feet  above  the  base  of  the  shaft.      Each  dressing-room 
is  ventilated  by  one  flue,  the  inlet  supplied  with  a  15x19  inch 
tracery-face  register,  containing  about  190  square  inches  of 
ventilating  outlet,  or  nearly  double  that  for  the  school  room. 
The  importance  of  thorough  ventilation  of  the  dressing  rooms 
seems  to  have  been  appreciated,  but  we  cannot  understand 


21 

why  such  meagre  allowance  for  ventilation  was  made  for  the 
school  rooms.  The  system  of  introducing  the  warm  air 
above  the  heads  of  the  pupils  has,  at  the  present  day,  much 
importance  attached  to  it,  although  not  a  modern  idea.  By 
this  method  the  heating  powers  of  the  apparatus  can  be  in- 
creased, the  air  admitted  at  a  higher  temperature  and  with 
more  rapidity  than  if  admitted  near  the  floor,  without 
creating  unpleasant  currents.  It  is  claimed  the  air  begins 
to  circulate  and  fill  the  upper  void  of  the  room  immediately 
after  its  expulsion  from  the  flue  and  gradually  pervades  all 
parts  of  the  room  at  an  equal  temperature,  free  from  floor 
dust,  otherwise  set  in  motion,  where  the  influx  is  at  the 
floor. 

In  this  connection  we  would  make  reference  to  the 
Washington  School  building,  erected  in  iS/r,  and  at  that 
date  supplied  with  steam  heating  apparatus  entirely  in- 
direct, and  fan,  the  original  apparatus  being  the  same  now 
in  use.  When  this  building  was  first  inspected  the  ther- 
mometer registered  34'  above  zero.  We  observed  that  in 
a  few  of  the  rooms  on  the  first  floor,  direct  steam  pipes  had 
been  introduced,  for  use,  we  were  informed,  in  very  cold 
weather.  We  found  the  ventilation  inactive,  and  not  by 
any  means  satisfactory,  considering  the  appliances  provided 
for  such  purpose. 

At  a  subsequent  date  we  again  visited  this  school,  when 
the  thermometer  registered  49^  above  zero.  The  fan  was 
not  in  operation,  as  it  was  near  the  noon  hour  for  dismissal 
of  the  pupils.  At  our  request,  the  engineer  started  the 
fan  with  fifteen  pounds  of  steam,  all  he  could  control  at 
that  time,  running  the  fan  at  about  one-third  speed,  which 
rate  of  speed  appeared  to  be  amply  sufficient  for  the  pur- 
pose of  good  ventilation,  provided  the  ventilating  flues 
were  of  the  proper  capacity,  that  a  pressure  would  be  cre- 
ated in  the  several  rooms.  Under  the  present  arrangement 
of  flues  there  are  three  in  the  external  walls  of  each  room 
(the  combined  area  being  in  excess  of  the  warm  air  inlets), 
with  an  opening  at  the  floor  and  near  the  ceiling,  the  latter 


22 

opening  being  entirely  superfluous  and  counteracting  the 
influence  of  the  one  below  it.  These  flues  are  not  separate, 
but  serve  in  common  for  three  rooms,  as  they  occur  one 
above  another.  Each  room  should  have  flues  separate  from 
any  other  room.  We  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  defect  is 
not  in  the  apparatus,  but  in  the  construction  of  the  flues 
and  the  prevailing  custom  with  the  teachers  of  opening 
windows  for  fresh  air,  instead  of  advising  the  engineer  of 
their  wants.  It  is  apparent,  as  the  flues  are  in  common, 
that  windows  opened  on  the  second  or  third  floor,  will  cre- 
ate a  reverse  current  in  the  flues,  into  the  room  immediately 
beneath,  by  reducing  the  pressure  on  and  causing  a  reverse 
action  in  the  flues. 

Referring  to  the  table,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  cost  per 
pupil  for  one  year,  for  heating  and  ventilating  this  building 
is  $2.T,'/ — less  than  any  other  building  in  which  the  fan  is 
used.  The  apparatus  has  been  in  operation  in  this  building 
about  fourteen  years,  and  we  are  of  the  opinion  that  if  the 
defects  herein  referred  to  are  remedied,  that  the  system  is 
one  attended  with  the  best  results,  is  economical,  because 
of  the  durability  of  the  apparatus,  and  serves  to  answer  all 
the  purposes  for  good  ventilation,  provided  the  flues  are 
properly  constructed,  and  the  apparatus  is  operated  by  an 
intelligent  engineer. 

We  cannot  see  that  it  is  necessary  for  the  Board  of  Edu- 
cation to  make  further  experiments  in  the  matter  of  heating 
and  ventilating  the  school  buildings  now  in  the  course  of 
erection.  It  is  our  opinion  that  the  merits  of  the  several 
kinds  of  apparatus  now  in  use  in  the  schools  should  be 
carefully  considered,  and  that  kind  be  adopted  from  which 
the  best  results  are  obtained  in  heating  and  ventilating 
—  the  prime  cost  not  being  so  much  of  a  consideration 
as  superiority  of  materials  and  good  workmanship,  the  re- 
sult of  which  is  durability,  and  economy  in  fuel.  Let  the 
board  adopt  a  standard  for  all  new  buildings,  not  to  be 
varied  from,  until  it  is  clearly  proven  that  some  other  kind 
of  an  apparatus  is  more  effective. 


23 

SOME   OF   THE    DEFECTS. 

It  is  quite  evident  from  observation,  that  in  the  con- 
struction of  nnany  of  the  older  buildings,  the  absolute  neces- 
sity for  efficient  ventilation  was  either  not  recognized  by  the 
architect,  or  that  he  may  have  realized  the  fact  that  one  of 
the  greatest  difficulties  to  be  encountered  in  the  progress 
toward  a  complete  sanitary  arrangement  of  his  plans,  was 
the  inertia  of  the  public,  or  those  representing  the  public, 
in  this  particular  direction — the  cost,  perhaps,  being  a  ma- 
terial consideration  to  those  composing  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  much  of  the  apathy  manifested  by 
the  public  toward  the  subject  of  ventilating  the  public 
schools,  arises  from  the  abortive  experiments  and  useless 
methods  so  often  tried  Tor  the  purpose  of  supplying  the  re- 
quired want,  the  cost,  as  we  have  before  mentioned,  being  a 
great,  if  not  paramount  consideration. 

When  many  of  the  buildings  referred  to  as  old  ones,  were 
being  erected,  the  flues  for  ventilating  service  were  placed 
without  regard  to  scientific  laws  as  at  present  interpreted, 
in  that  they  are  deficient  in  number  and  capacity,  and  in 
several  instances  located  where  most  convenient  to  the  con- 
structor, and  not  where  they  would  be  of  the  most  benefit — 
the  builder  being  of  the  opinion,  no  doubt,  that  foul  air  was 
so  extremely  accommodating  as  to  make  its  exit  through 
any  hole  left  in  the  wall. 

In  other  buildings  of  the  same  character,  we  have  ob- 
served a  system  of  flues  for  ventilation,  located  in  the  walls 
close  to  the  ceiling  angle,  the  inlets  being  about  10x14  inches, 
having  a  frame  with  revolving  slats.  We  found  this  system 
abandoned  by  the  school  authorities  for  one  which  is  more  in 
accordance  with  modern  science.  Thirty  years  ago  the  syst- 
tem  of  egress  for  ventilation  near  the  ceiling  was  popular, 
founded  upon  the  almost  universal  law  that  gases  expand  with 
increased  heat,  and  that  as  the  temperature  of  the  room  was 
increased,  the  heated   air  would  take  up  the  noxious  gases 


24 

From  the  exhalations  of  the  body  and  rise  upward.  Indeed 
upon  this  fact  of  the  expansion  of  gases  is  built  the  whole 
system  of  natural  ventilation,  and  upon  its  due  appreciation 
depends  success  in  this  particular  branch  of  the  science ;  for  it 
follows  that  as  gases  expand  so  are  their  densities  decreased, 
and  they  are  lifted  upward  by  the  heavier  air  without  ;  ris- 
ing, not  by  reason  of  their  decreased  composition,  but  be- 
cause the  outer  air  is  colder  and  consequently  heavier.  A 
well  grounded  objection  to  natural  ventilation  is,  that  its 
action  is  materially  affected  by  the  difference  of  tempera- 
ture between  the  inner  and  outer  air,  as  in  moderate 
weather  its  utility  may,  from  this  cause,  be  impaired,  or 
cease,  or  be  reversed.  We  use  the  word  "  natural  "  where 
the  ventilation  is  through  unwarmed  flues,  and  "  forced  " 
where  ventilation  is  through  flues  artificially  warmed  or  in- 
fluenced by  the  action  of  a  fan. 

Without  special  reference  to  the  physiological  effects  re- 
sulting from  the  particular  modes  of  warming  and  venti- 
lating the  public  schools,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  refer  to  the 
subject  as  one  which  closely  concerns  every  individual  mem- 
ber of  the  community.  It  is  a  question  which  affects  the 
personal  comfort  of  individuals,  influences  the  health  and 
shortens  the  duration  of  life.  Successful  ventilation  depends 
upon  successful  heating — the  two  are  inseparable. 

Successful  heating  of  the  several  forms  of  hot-air  fur- 
naces which  have  came  under  our  notice  during-  this  in- 
spection,  depends  on  a  free  admission  of  fresh  air  into  a 
fresh  air  chamber  of  the  apparatus,  which  in  a  number  of  the 
new  buildings,  and  several  of  the  old,  is  abundantly  provided 
for,  the  fresh  air  being  directly  admitted  into  a  commodious 
room  from  the  outside  at  grade,  through  capacious  openings, 
these  openings  being  protected  by  sash  hinged  and  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  graduate  the  influx  to  any  degree  of  volume  re- 
quired. The  fresh  air,  or  receiving  room,  is  entirely  distinct 
from  any  other  portion  of  the  basement,  scrupulously  clean  and 
by  reason  of  its  liberal  dimensions  prevents  the  possibility 
of  too  rapid  and  forcible   flow  of  air  over  the  heated  pipes, 


25 

■otherwise  the  heating  power  would  be  greatly  curtailed. 
Then  there  are  other  hot-air  furnaces  in  several  of  the  build- 
ings to  which  the  fresh  air  is  supplied  through  wood  or  brick 
boxes  placed  under  the  basement  floor,  no  other  plan  seem- 
ing convenient,  from  the  location  of  the  furnaces.  We  are  of 
the  opinion  that  air  so  supplied  is,  to  a  certain  degree,  tainted 
in  its  passage  through  this  inlet,  A  passing  reference  to  an 
important  practical  question  may  be  fitly  introduced  here,  viz., 
the  locality  from  which  the  fresh  air  supply  is  taken  fornearly 
all  the  school  buildings  heated  by  steam  or  hot-air  furnaces, 
is  at  a  grade  immediately  outside  of  the  building  ;  this,  in  our 
judgment,  is  very  objectionable,  because  the  chemical  con- 
stitution of  the  atmosphere  varies  with  its  situation.  In 
moderate  weather,  when  the  air  is  flowing  over  filthy  gutters, 
and  streets  reeking  with  impurities  and  foul  odors,  and 
is  carried  directly  to  the  rooms  charged  with  atoms  of  the 
impurities  through  which  it  has  passed,  does  it  not  exer- 
cise its  influence  on  the  mental  activity  as  well  as  the  bodily 
powers  of  those  exposed  to  it  ?  And  may  not  many 
of  the  effects  which  are  entirely  attributed  to  defective  ven- 
tilation, such  as  headache,  symptoms  of  languor,  etc.,  be 
partly  due  to  something  produced  by  the  fresh  air?  In  the 
Emerson  School  building  the  fresh  air  is  introduced  into  the 
flues  about  six  feet  above  grade.  This  is  an  improvement  and 
a  step  in  the  right  direction,  but  the  evil  can  be  still  further 
remedied  by  obtaining  the  fresh  air  supply  near  or  at  the  top 
of  the  building  if  the  building,  is  heated  by  steam  and  if  a 
fan  is  used.  In  many  of  the  furnace  heated  buildings,  the 
ventilation  is  connected  with  central  shafts  ;  the  shafts  of  suf- 
ficient capacity,  each,  to  admit  of  a  metal  smoke  pipe  (the  pipe 
^usually  of  12-inch  diameter)  from  the  furnace  placed  within 
its  limits  and  afford  ample  space  around  the  pipe  for  venti- 
lation, which  is  warmed  by  the  heat  within  the  smoke  pipe. 
This  is  an  effective  method  when  the  furnace  is  in  active 
-operation. 

The  deterioration  of  the  air  by  passing  over  highly  heated 
metallic  substances,  is  a  matter  for  most  serious  consideration 
in  connection  with  the  various  forms  of   hot-air  apparatus. 


26 

When  air  is  heated  artificially  without  being  in  contact  with 
water,  its  extreme  aridity  causes  it  rapidly  to  absorb  moisture 
from  the  exhalations  of  the  bodies  exposed  to  its  influence, 
and  the  active  evaporation  has  a  refrigerating  effect  upon  the 
body  by  rapidly  forming  carbonic  acid  gas. 

It  is  claimed  by  the  manufacturers  of  several  of  the 
various  hot-air  furnaces,  that  ample  provision  is  made  for 
the  supply  of  water  in  receptacles  placed  in  convenient 
positions  about  the  apparatus,  where  the  heat  from  the 
furnace  will  evaporate  the  water  sufficiently  to  produce 
the  moisture.  This  arrangement,  if  properly  looked  after 
by  the  attendant,  will  correct  to  a  great  degree  the  objection 
named.  This  difficulty  can  be  remedied  very  satisfactorily 
where  the  water  receptacles  have  insufficient  capacity,  by 
several  small  pipes  perforated  and  arranged  to  throw  a  fine 
spray  into  the  conducting  tubes  while  the  hot  air  is  passing 
through  them,  the  supply  of  water  being  taken  from  the 
water  system  in  the  building. 

We  have  not  seen  any  appliances  for  the  evaporation  of 
water  connected  with  the  Ruttan  furnaces.  The  manu- 
facturers claim  this  is  not  a  necessary  fixture,  "  because  of 
the  large  amount  of  fire  surface,"  "  the  cold  air  from  the  out- 
side having  free  circulation  around  every  part  of  the  furnace, 
firebox,  flues  and  chambers,  and  thus  every  square  inch  of 
heating  surface  is  made  directly  available,"  thus  introducing 
a  greater  quantity  of  warm  air  at  a  lower  temperature,  upon 
the  theory  that  the  success  of  heating  (and,  we  will  add, 
ventilation,)  depends  more  upon  the  quantity  than  upon  the 
temperature  of  the  air  supplied. 

It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  real  power  of  hot-air  furnaces^ 
for  heating  and  ventilation,  because  there  seems  to  be  no 
absolute  limit  to  either  case ;  a  very  vigorous  fire  may 
by  skillful  or  unskillful  treatment  so  affect  the  in- 
creased radiation  as  to  render  any  ordinary  calculations  of 
its  power  somewhat  uncertain.  In  several  instances  we  have 
observed  the  supply  of  heat  materially  affected  by  the  close 


27 

proximity  of  the  register  for  ventilation  to  that  for  the  heat 
supply.  This,  of  course,  is  a  defect  in  the  original  con- 
struction of  the  building,  but  we  see  no  reason  why  venti- 
lating flues  cannot  be  placed  in  other  positions  in  the  rooms 
remote  from  the  warm  air  register. 

The  merits  or  demerits  of  a  ventilating  apparatus  must  be 
considered  with  reference  to  its  power  and  capacity  for  mov- 
ing air  with  regularity.  Ventilating  engineers  recognize  the 
necessity  of  power  to  move  air,  and  they  only  employ  twa 
kinds  of  power,  namely:  Mechanical,  the  fan  ;  Thermal,  the 
rarified  shafts.  For  good  ventilation,  therefore,  we  think 
it  must  be  conceded  there  is  only  a  choice  between  these 
two  systems. 

For  the  approval  of  fans,  we  refer  to  the  fact  of  their 
adoption  by  nearly  all  insane  asylums  and  the  numerous 
large  buildings  where  reliable  ventilation  is  required. 

As  to  rarified  shafts,  they  unquestionably  aid  ventilation, 
and  if  properly  constructed  and  managed — that  is,  if  they  are 
an  independent  device  and  not  incidental  to  the  working  of 
the  warming  apparatus — very  good  results  maybe  obtained. 
But  in  order  to  get  satisfactory  results,  it  is  necessary  that 
the  warming  device  be  managed  so  as  to  furnish  the  air  only 
warmed  to  the  required  degree  corresponding  with  the 
weather,  so  that  the  hot-air  registers  may  always  be  open, 
and  furnish  the  necessary  amount  of  air.  And  the  venti- 
lating device  must  be  so  managed  as  to  give  varied  power 
corresponding  with  the  weather :  that  is,  in  very  cold 
weather  they  require  little  or  no  heat  in  them,  while  in 
moderate  weather  they  require  considerable. 

But  to  manage  such  a  device  satisfactorily,  requires 
an  amount  of  judgment  not  obtainable  by  any  janitor  or  engi- 
neer ;  whereas  the  fan,  being  driven  at  a  regular  speed  by  an 
engine,  at  all  times  forces  the  same  amount  of  air  through 
the  building;  and  in  conjunction  with  the  non-closing,  or 
temperature-regulating  registers,  as  in  many  of  our  build- 
ings, the  ventilation  becomes  reliable,  and  requires  no  skill 
in  managing. 


28 

We  do  not  hesitate  to  say  that  the  fan  apparatus,  in  a  few 
of  our  buildings,  is  a  reUable  and  efficient  ventilating  appar- 
atus, and  far  superior  to  anything  in  use.  It  only  remains 
to  be  determined  whether  the  extra  expense  of  this  device 
over  and  above  any  other  system  is  too  great  to  warrant  its 
adoption,  which  question  is  fully  explained  in  the  tables  ac- 
companing  this  report,  where  it  can  be  seen  that  the  cost 
per  pupil,  for  one  year,  for  heat  and  ventilation  in  the 
Armour  Street,  Marquette  and  Lincoln  Schools,  where  the 
fan  is  used  and  ventilation  is  "  very  good,"  is  not  as  great  as 
in  some  other  schools  where  fans  are  not  used.  We  recom- 
mend these  schools  as  good  examples  of  successful  heating 
and  ventilation,  and  for  a  high  standard  of  workmanship  and 
materials  employed  in  the  apparatus. 

We  have  found  a  number  of  schools  warmed  with  various 
systems  of  hot  air  and  steam  apparatus,  where  ventilation 
has  received  considerable  attention,  and  which,  when  in 
charge  of  a  vigilant  teacher  and  janitor,  would  result  in  very 
fair  ventilation,  except  in  the  mildest  winter  weather.  Yet 
we  feel  that  such  apparatus,  in  order  to  get  these  results, 
makes  a  demand  upon  teacher  and  janitor  such  as  the 
teacher,  especially,  ought  not  to  be  taxed  with. 

We  do  not  intend  to  enter  into  all  the  details  of  any  ap- 
paratus, but  suggest  that,  if  the  fan  apparatus  be  adopted, 
two  or  three  pipes  be  put  on  the  outside  wall  of  each  room, 
for  use  only  in  extreme  cold  weather.  The  location  of  the 
hot-air  register  is  not  so  important,  so  far  as  the  warming  of 
a  room  is  concerned,  but  it  should  be  placed  where  the  air 
-current  will  not  come  in  contact  with  the  occupants.  If  it 
is  located  in  the  floor  some  distance  from  them,  or  if  in  the 
wall  above  their  heads,  no  unpleasant  currents  will  be  experi- 
enced ;  we  suggest  that  ample  time  be  allowed  and  accom- 
modation supplied  somewhere  in  the  building  for  children 
to  dry  and  warm  their  feet,  which  cannot  be  done  where 
the  registers  are  placed  high  in  the  walls. 

The  results  of  this  inspection  have  fully  demonstrated  to 
the  committee  the  importance  of  a  careful   preparation  of 


the  plans  for  heating  and  ventilating  the  new  school  build- 
ino-s  in  connection  with  the  architect's  plans,  the  method  of 
heating  and  ventilating  having  first  been  determined  by  the 
Board  of  Education. 

It  seems  that  the  employment  of  a  ventilating  engineer  is 
of  almost  as  much  importance  as  that  of  the  architect. 
It  is  evident  that  materials  of  an  inferior  quality  have 
been  used  in  the  construction  of  some  of  the  apparatuses, 
and  this  defective  material  can  only  be  detected  by  an  ex- 
pert. 

It  is  important  that  some  standard  for   materials   should 
be    specified ;    those    that      prove    in    their    usefulness   the 
most  economical  should  be   selected.    But  to  this  end  it  is 
necessary  that   the   standards  be  selected  with   great  care, 
and  it  requires  an  expert  to  determine  such  questions,  for  the 
reason  that  the  manufacturers  and  dealers  in  these  materials 
are  very  apt  to  claim  more  merits  for  their  goods  than  they 
are  entitled  to.     It  is  necessary  to  examine  and  test  the  ma- 
terials very  closely  in  order  to  settle  their  merits.     If  certain 
manufacturers    are    specified,    the    dealer    in    those    articles 
is  liable  to  take  advantage  of  the  preference,   and  in  order 
to  avoid  this,  only  the  materials  that  best  meet  the  views  of 
the  board  should  be  adopted  as  standards,  allowing  those  of 
any  other  manufacturers  to  be  used  that  are  of  equal  merit. 

SUMMARY. 

Referring  to  the  statements  above  made  under  the  head- 
ing,  "  Difficulties  Encountered  in  Obtaining  Perfect  Venti. 
lation,"  it  will  be  seen  that  effective  ventilation  depends 
entirely  upon  the  amount  of  artificial  heat  that  is  economi- 
cally expended  in  the  movement  of  bodies  of  air.  This 
heat  may  be  expended  either  in  rarifying  the  air  itself,  or  in 
the  production  of  mechanical  power  to  accelerate  its  motion. 
This  last  form  of  power  can  only  be  used  where  a  steam 
apparatus,  capable  of  producing  the  necessary  high  pres- 
sure, is  employed,  and  it  is  exemplified  in  those  buildings 
into  which  the   fresh   air  is  forced  with  a  fan,  for  in  such 


30 

buildings  only  can  any  effective  system  of  artificial  ventila- 
tion be  used  when  little  or  no  artificial  heat  is  required.  Such 
a  building  in  which — to  repeat  what  has  been  above  discussed 
in  detail — the  fresh  air  is  forced  in  with  a  fan,  not  heated  in 
summer,  but  heated  in  winter  by  the  radiation  of  steam 
pipes,  the  heating  being  supplemented  by  direct  radiation 
from  steam  pipes  in  the  rooms,  and  the  exhausted  air  being 
rarified,  if  possible,  by  the  waste  heat  of  the  smoke-stack, 
approaches  as  near  as  possible,  in  the  present  state  of 
science,  to  perfection  in  heating  and  ventilation.  It  has 
ventilation  in  every  degree  of  the  temperature  of  external 

air.  This  has  been  demonstrated  in  a  few  instances,  ami  is 
no  longer  a  matter  of  theory  and  conjecture.  All  others 
possess  degrees  of  effectiveness  only  so  far  as  they  approach 
this  standard  ;  and  how  far  the  mass  of  our  school  buildings 
fall  short  of  it  may  be  ascertained  by  the  above  remarks  and 
the  following  tables. 

COST   OF   HEATING   AND   VENTILATION. 

In  order  to  arrive  at  the  cost  per  pupil  for  heating,  ven- 
tilating, and  wages  of  Engineer  or  Janitor,  we  have  assumed 
the  endurance  of  steam  heating  apparatus  to  be  20  years, 
and  of  the  furnace  heating  apparatus  to  be  10  years;  the  re- 
spective periods  having  been  approximated  from  such  data  as 
we  could  obtain  as  to  the  date  of  the  introduction  of  the 
two  systems  into  the  buildings,  and  their  renewal.  Of  the 
steam  heated  buildings  we  have  taken  the  Armour  Street 
School  building  for  an  example. 

Cost  of  Steam  Apparatus $6,000 

Interest  on  cost         "         4^ $  240  00     ■ 

Depreciation  of         "         5^....  300  00 

Repairs 200  00 

Cost  of  Fuel 676  00 

Wages  of  Engineer 1,200  00 

Number  of  Sittings 945     $  2,616  00  $-2  76 


31 

Of  furnace  heated  buildings  we  have  taken  the  Vedder 
St.  School  building  for  an  example. 

Cost  of  Furnace  Apparatus $  2,000 

Interest  on  cost  "  4:%.  . 

Depreciation  of  "         10%. . 

Repairs  "  "      

Cost  of  Fuel 

Wages  of  Janitor 

Number  of  Sittings 756     $  1,700  00    $2  24 

The  difference  in  economy  between  steam  apparatus  with 
and  without  fan  is  demonstrated  by  the  following  compar- 
ison : 

The  average  cost  per  sitting  of  13  buildings  without 

fans,  built  since  1 879  is $  3  14 

The  average  cost  per  sitting  of  all  the  buildings   in 

which  fans  are  used  is 2  71 


$   80 

00 

200 

00 

50 

00 

560 

00 

810 

00 

The  difference  in  favor  of  fans  is $       43 

In  these  13  buildings  there  are  10,736  sittings,  and  the 
departure  made  fn  recent  years  from  the  fan  system  has 
cost  $4,616.48  per  annum.  Had  the  fan  system  been  ad- 
hered to  it  is  reasonable  to  assume  that  the  saving  of  cost 
of  heating  and  ventilation  during  20  years,  the  estimated 
life  of  the  apparatus,  in  these  13  buildings  would  have  been 
$92,329.60. 

The  following  tables  show  the  particulars  of  the  cost  per 
pupil  per  year,  and  the  condition  of  ventilation  of  the 
schools  named,  at  the  time  of  inspection. 


32 


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35 

SANITARY  CONDITION. 

During  the  inspection  of  the  school  buildings,  we  did  not 
enter  into  any  chemical  tests  of  the  air  within  the  limits  of 
the  water  closets,  the  majority  of  which  are  placed  in  the 
basements  of  the  buildings.  The  closets,  as  far  as  ob- 
served, are  of  a  uniform  system,  a  continuous  tank  un- 
der the  seats,  supplied  with  stopper  for  the  purpose 
of  flushing,  which  process  is  daily  performed  by  the 
janitor.  The  catch-basin  is  under  the  floor  of  the  base- 
ment, contiguous  to  the  closets,  and  is  ventilated  into 
a  heated  stack  or  flue,  separate  and  apart  from  any  flue 
used  for  any  other  ventilation.  We  observed  where  steam 
was  used  for  heating,  that  the  ventilation  was  taken  through 
the  furnace  into  the  smoke  flue.  We  did  not,  in  any 
instance,  detect  any  unpleasant  odor,  and  observed  much 
care  on  the  part  of  those  in  authority  in  keeping  all  portions 
of  the  basement  scrupulously  clean.  In  this  connection  it 
may  be  well  to  add  that  the  basements  of  many  of  the 
buildings  visited,  are  used  for  play  rooms  by  the  children 
during  inclement  weather — separate,  of  course,  from  the 
water  closets,  but  the  importance  of  thorough  ventilation  in 
this  portion  of  each  building  is  apparent. 

Much  work  has  been  performed  in  the  last  three  or  four 
years  in  correcting  the  defective  ventilation  of  the  old  school 
buildings.  Indeed,  it  is  apparent  that  the  present  Board  of 
Education  realize  the  importance  of  good  ventilation,  and 
are  moving  in  the  right  direction  to  secure  it,  if  no  mistake 
is  made  in  the  selection  of  the  proper  heating  apparatus. 

We  desire  to  thank  Mr.  Matthew  B.  Hicks,  the  supply 
and  business  agent,  for  courtesies  shown  us  during  the 
inspection.  Mr.  Hicks  is  a  most  courteous  gentleman  and 
shows  capacity  of  a  high  order  for  correcting  defective 
ventilation,  in  the  old  buildings. 

We  deem  it  best  to  submit  the  foregoing  at  this  time,  as 
it  concludes  the   particular   branch  of  the  subject  to  which 


36 

it  refers.  We  shall  take  pleasure  in  furnishing  our  report  on 
the  church  edifices,  minor  theatres  and  halls,  at  an  early- 
date. 

Respectfully, 

P.  B.  WIGHT, 

C.  W.  DREW, 

S.  D.  KIMBARK, 

DANKMAR  ADLER, 

J.  AUSTIN  BROWN, 

AMOS  GRANNIS, 

MARX  WINEMAN, 

Committee. 
Chicago,  October,  t8Sj. 


<n  I     ti 


J    i 


I 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE 


ON 


Drainage  and  Water  Supply 


TO  tup: 


EXECUTIVE   COMMITTEE 

OF   THE 

CITIZENS'  ASSOCIATION 

And  by  it  Adopted  and  Ordered  Printed^ 
May  '25,  1887. 

AS  TO   THE 

NFXESSARY  LEGISLATION  AND  THE    CONDITION    OF  THE    CHICAGO 

DRAINAGE   BILLS   BEFORE    THE 

LEGISLATURE. 


CHICAGO  : 

Geo.  K.  Hazi.itt  A-  Co.,  Printers,  172  and  174  Ci..\rk  Street. 

1SS7. 


REPORT   OF  COMMITTEE 

ox 

DRAINAGE  and  WATER  SUPPLY. 


Vo  the  Executive   Committee  of  the   Citizens^  Association : 

The  Committee  on  Main  Drainage  and  Water  Supply 
respectfully  submit  the  following  report: 

On  January  27,  1SS6,  the  City  Council  of  Chicago 
passed  the  following  resolutions: 

Whereas,  Pure  water  and  scientific  drainage  are  neces- 
sities of  this  community,  and  the  people  demand  a  system  of 
water  supply  and  drainage  adequate  to  meet  the  requirements, 
not  only  of  the  present,  but  of  years  to  come,  nor  will  any 
temporary  expedient  or  makeshift  satisfy  them;  and, 

Whereas,  A  thorough  and  permanent  system  of  sup- 
plying pure  water  to  our  citizens  and  caring  for  the  drainage 
of  the  municipality,  cannot  be  paid  for  out  of  current  taxation, 
therefore  it  is  desired  that  a  plan  shall  be  devised  and  perfected 
before  the  next  meeting  of  the  legislature,  to  the  end  that  nec- 
essary legislation  may  be  had. 

"For  the  purpose  of  carrying  into  effect  the  objects 
sought,  there  is  recommended,  the  appointment  by  the  mayor 
of  a  commission  to  consist  of  one  expert  engineer,  whose  rep- 
utation  is  so  high  that  his  opinion  and  report  will  command 
the  respect  of  the  community,  and  with  him  one  or  two  con- 
sulting engineers,  of  like  experience  in  engineering  and  sani- 
tary matters.  The  duty  of  this  drainage  and  water-supply 
commission,  made  up  as  above  set  forth,  should  be  to  consider 


all  plans  relating  to  drainage  and  water-supply  which  may  he 
brought  to  its  attention;  to  make  such  examinations  and  in- 
vestigations and  surveys  as  may  be  deemed  necessary;  to  col- 
lect all  information  bearing  on  this  problem;  to  consider  all 
recent  developments  in  the  matter  of  sewage  disposal,  and 
their  application  to  our  present  and  future  needs;  to  consider 
and  meet  the  necessity  of  increasing  our  water-supply  and  of 
protecting  the  same  from  contamination ;  to  remedy  our  present 
inadequate  methods  of  drainage  and  sewage  disposal,  to  con- 
sider the  relations  of  any  system  proposed  to  adjacent  districts, 
and  whether  there  may  not  be  a  union  between  the  city  and 
its  suburbs  to  solve  the  great  problem,  to  determine  the  great 
question,  as  to  the  interest  which  the  state  and  the  United 
States  may  have  in  the  disposal  of  sewage  by  way  of  the  Ill- 
inois river,  and  to  devise  plans  to  meet  any  objections  thereto, 
if  such  a  system  shall  be  thought  best;  and  in  general  to  con- 
sider and  report  upon  any  and  all  things  which  relate  to  the 
matter  of  water-supply  and  drainage  of  the  city  of  Chicago." 

"The  commission  should  report  on  the  whole  matter  com- 
mitted to  it  in  the  most  full  and  comprehensive  manner,  with 
maps,  plans,  and  diagrams  complete,  and  accompany  the  re- 
port with  estimates  of  the  first  cost  and  annual  requirements 
for  the  maintainence  of  the  system  proposed." 

"The  report  of  the  commission  should  be  made  as  early 
as  practicable,  and  not  later  than  the  convening  of  the  next 
session  of  the  Illinois  legislature  in  January,   1887." 

The  Commission  on  Drainage  and  Water  Supply  ap- 
pointed under  this  resolution,  consisting  of  Rudolph  Hering, 
as  Chief  Engineer,  and  Benezette  Williams  and  S.  G.  Ar- 
tingstall  as  consulting  engineers,  in  their  preliminary  report 
of  January,  1SS7,  recommended  the  adoption  of  a  system  of 
sewage  disposal  which  would  turn  a  large  stream  of  water 
from  Lake  Michigan  through   the    Chicago  river,  and  thence 


down  the  Desplaines  river  into  the  Illinois  river,  carrying 
along  w^ith  it  in  a  highly  diluted  state,  the  sewage  of  the  city 
as  well  as  that  of  the  towns  along  these  rivers. 

Two  other  possible  methods  were  considered,  vis:  Dis- 
charge of  the  sewage  into  Lake  Michigan  and  taking  the 
water  at  some  point  north,  say  Grosse's  Point;  and  "Land  Dis- 
posal," which  means  collecting  the  sewage  into  great  main 
sewers  and  pumping  it  out  upon  land,  to  be  procured  for  the 
purpose.  The  Desplaines  System  is  preferred  for  a  num- 
ber of  reasons:  ist.  It  will  be  the  least  expensive  by  many 
millions  of  dollars.  3d.  It  is  the  most  comprehensive  and  sat- 
isfactory. 3d.  A  channel  of  the  requisite  capacity  to  carry  off 
the  storm  water  from  the  area  provided  for,  at  the  same  time 
that  it  carries  a  large  and  steady  stream  of  pure  lake  water 
through  the  heart  of  the  city,  taking  up  and  completely  dilu- 
ting the  sewage,  will,  to  use  the  language  of  the  commis- 
sioners, "  from  the  necessary  dimensions  and  its  regular  dis- 
charge, produce  a  magnificent  water-way  between  Chicago 
and  the  Mississippi  river,  suitable  for  the  navigation  of  boats 
having  as  much  as  2,000  tons  burden,"  and  "establish  an  avail- 
able water  power  between  Lockport  and  Marseilles  fully 
twice  as  large  as  that  of  the  MississijDpi  river  at  Minneapolis." 

This  "Desplaines  System"  involves  the  construction  of  the 
following  works: 

1st.  A  channel  from  the  South  fork  of  the  Chicago  river 
along  the  Ogden  ditch  to  the  Desplaines  river  at  Summit,  and 
thence  along  the  bed  of  that  river  to  Joliet.  The  capacity  of 
this  channel,  as  appears  by  the  preliminary  report  of  the  com- 
mission, is  to  be  600,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per  minute,  or 
say,  200  feet  wide  by  18  feet  deep,  or  160  feet  wide  by  22 
feet  deep,  with  a  current  of  two  miles  an  hour.  This  capa- 
city is  required,  according  to  the  testimony  of  the  engineers, 
"to  keep  the  sewage  from  backing  out  into  the  lake  in  times 


6 

of  flood,  to  contaminate  our  water  supply  when  the  city  is  vir- 
tually taking  a  bath.  After  the  diversion  of  all  possible  trib- 
utary waters  to  Lake  Michigan,  there  will  remain  125  square 
miles  of  the  future  drainage  district,  partly  paved  and  sewered, 
and  295  miles  of  country  district  below  Summit,  tributary  to 
the  new  channel  above  the  first  wier  at  Lockport.  In  this 
(channel)  the  lake  water  will  be  entirely  replaced  at  times 
by  storm  water."  The  cost  of  this  work  for  the  wider  channel 
is  estimated  by  the  commissioners  at  between  $17,000,000  and 
$20,000,000;  the  narrower  channel  can  be  built  for  about 
$15,000,000. 

2d.  A  cut  off  from  the  Desplaines  commencing  in  the 
northeast  corner  of  Leyden  and  running  thence  easterly  to  the 
North  Branch,  thence  down  the  North  Branch  to  Bowman- 
ville,  thence  east  to  Lake  Michigan,  The  object  of  this  cut- 
off is  to  divert  from  the  Desplaines  and  the  North  Branch  the 
storm  waters  of  about  500  square  miles  of  territory  lying 
north  of  the  cut-off.  This  amount  of  flood  water  is  in  excess 
of  the  capacity  of  the  proposed  Desplaines  channel  and  the 
cut-off  is  necessary,  as  before  shown,  to  prevent  these  streams 
from  forcing  the  sewage  into  the  lake  in  times  of  flood.  It 
will  also  be  of  great  advantage,  if  not  of  necessity  in  keeping 
the  water  of  the  Desplaines  out  of  the  main  channel  during 
the  progress  of  its  construction  below  Summit.  The  cut  be- 
low that  point  is  through  rock  and  the  excavation  cannot  be 
carried  on  under  water.  This  cut-off,  with  a  dam  at  Summit, 
is  estimated  to  cost  between  $2,500,000  and  $3,000,000. 

3d.  Pumping  works  and  locks  in  the  North  Branch  in 
connection  with  the  cut-off  for  the  purpose  of  cleansing  that 
branch  south  of  the  cut-off,  to  cost  about  $150,000. 

4th.  A  separate  system  of  sewers  to  collect  the  sewage 
now  discharged  directly  into  the  lake  and  to  carry  it  into  the 
river,  at  a  cost  of  about  $600,000. 


5th.  A  channel  from  Lake  Cahnnet  to  the  Sag  at  cost  of 
between  $2,500,000  and  $3,000,000. 

6th.  A  diversion  of  the  flood  water  of  the  Cakimet  river 
at  a  cost  of  between  $350,000  and  $400,000. 

The  commissioners  find  that  in  designing  any  permanent 
plan  of  drainage  and  water-supply  for  Chicago,  a  certain  area 
embracing  the  city  and  several  suburbs  must  be  taken  into  ac- 
count and  treated  together.  They  say:  "Investigation  has 
shown  that  topographical  conditions  clearly  define  two  districts 
for  the  future  metropolis.  The  main  district  extends  from  the 
line  of  Syth  Street  on  the  south  to  the  north  line  of  Evanston 
and  from  the  lake  westward  to  the  Desplaines  river."  "The 
other  extends  over  the  natural  drainage  area  of  Calumet  lake 
and  river  south  of  Syth  Street." 

This  area  is  occupied  by  several  distinct  municipalities, 
viz:  the  city  of  Chicago,  the  towns  of  Hyde  Park,  Lake, 
Calumet,  Worth,  Cicero,  Lyons,  Riverside,  Norwood  Park, 
Jefferson,  Lake  View,  Evanston  and  Niles,  and,  in  some  of 
these,  incorporated  villages.  Neither  of  these  has  the  requis- 
ite power  to  proceed  with  such  a  system  alone,  nor  is  it  practi 
cable,  if  indeed  it  is  possible,  for  them  to  act  conjointly.  There 
is  therefore  no  way  left  but  for  all  the  outside  towns  to  be- 
come annexed  to  the  city  of  Chicago,  or  for  Chicago  and 
these  towns  to  unite  in  creating  a  new  municipality  co-exten- 
sive in  its  limits  and  jurisdiction  with  the  area  and  subject 
matter  to  be  treated.  If  all  the  outlying  towns  mentioned 
were  at  the  present  time  a  part  of  the  city  of  Chicago,  several 
serious  practical  difficulties  would  stand  in  the  way  of  the  exe- 
cution of  the  system  recommended.  Chicago  is  incorporated 
under  the  general  city  and  village  act,  which  does  not  give 
power  to  construct  the  works  necessary  to  be  constructed  out- 
side its  corporate  limits,  such  as  the  Desplaines  channel,  the 
Bowmanville  cut-off  and  Sag  channel.     This  might  possibly 


be  remedied  by  an  amendment  to  that  act;  but  a  more  serious 
difficulty  would  exist  in  the  fact,  that  the  debt  of  the  city  of 
Chicago  is  now  about  $2,000,000  in  the  excess  of  the  constitu- 
tional (5  per  cent)  limitation  upon  the  entire  valuation  of  the 
property  in  the  proposed  municipality.  The  limitation  upon 
the  amount  of  annual  tax  a  city  may  levy  is  still  another  diffi- 
culty that  would  stand  in  the  way  of  the  execution  of  so  great 
a  work. 

The  committee,  in  the  preparation  of  a  bill  to  carry  out 
the  recommendation  of  the  commission,  were  therefore  driven 
to  the  necessity  of  providing  for  the  organization  of  a  new 
municipality,  co-extensive  in  its  territorial  limits  and  jurisdiction 
with  the  area  involved  in  the  system  proposed  and  with  powers 
equal  to  the  requirements.  We  refer  to  the  bill  now  on  third 
reading  in  the  house  of  Representatives,  and  known  as  the 
Hurd  bill,  and  which  was  endorsed,  and  the  passage  of  which 
has  been  urged  by  the  Executive  Committee  of  the  Citizens' 
Association.  Its  terms  are  known  by  your  body  but  it  may 
be  well  to  give  an  epitome  of  it: 

It  authorizes  the  organization  of  a  metropolitan  town  to 
contain  not  less  than  500,000  inhabitants  and  comprising  not 
less  than  five  townships.  It  must  be  adopted  by  a  vote  of 
each  of  the  towns  that  shall  form  a  part  of  It.  The  corporate 
powers  are  to  be  exercised  by  a  board  of  four  commissioners, 
to  be  appointed  by  the  governor.  Their  term  of  office  is  four 
years.  No  more  than  two  of  the  commission  aix  to  be  taken 
from  the  same  political  party.  The  officers  of  the  corpora- 
tion are  to  be  a  clerk,  a  treasurer,  a  chief  engineer,  and  an 
attorney,  to  be  appointed  by  the  commissioners.  Careful  pro- 
visions are  made  as  to  the  mode  of  keeping  the  funds,  keeping, 
auditing  and  paying  accounts  and  warrants.  The  powers  of 
the  municipality  are  expressed  in  general  terms  and  are  suf- 
ficient to  allow  of  the  adoption  of  any  plan  of  sewerage,  and 
water  supply  that  may  be  thought  best;  but  the  Desplaines 


system  was  kept  especially  in  view  and  all  the  powers  requi- 
site to  go  beyond  the  corporate  limits  to  acquire  property  and 
construct  any  and  all  necessary  works,  are  contained  in  the 
bill.  The  corporation  is  authorized  to  borrow  money  for  the 
corporate  purposes,  not  exceeding  five  per  cent,  of  the  valua- 
tion of  the  property  within  the  corporate  limits;  but  no 
greater  amount  can  be  borrowed  in  any  one  year  than  is 
needed  for  that  year,  and  the  bonds  to  be  issued  for  the  same 
are  to  be  made  to  fall  due  at  such  times  that  the  money  which 
the  constitution  requires  shall  be  provided  for  the  payment  of 
the  loan  can  be  applied  as  it  is  raised,  instead  of  creating  a 
sinking  fund  which  generally  lies  idle  while  the  bonds  con- 
tinue to  draw  interest. 

The  corjDoration  is  given  power  to  levy  taxes  not  exceed- 
ing in  any  one  year  one  dollar  on  each  one  hundred  dollars' 
valuation.  It  is  also  given  power  to  make  special  assess- 
ments and  condemn  property  under  Article  IX.  of  the  City 
and  Village  Act. 

The  object  of  the  corporation  is  the  adoption,  construction 
and  maintenance  of  a  system  of  main  drains  and  sewers  and 
of  main  water  tunnels  for  the  supply  of  water  to  the  several 
municipalities  embraced  within  the  metropolis.  These  muni- 
cipalities are  each  to  take  the  water  from  the  tunnels  by  their 
own  pumps  at  a  price  (wholesale)  to  be  agreed  upon,  and  to 
distribute  it  to  their  people  in  their  own  way  and  at  their 
own  rates. 

A  joint  committee  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Represent- 
atives was  appointed  to  investigate  and  report  to  the  two 
houses  the  effect  the  proposed  plan  of  sewerage  would  have 
upon  the  Desplaines  and  Illinois  rivers,  and  much  time  has 
been  spent  in  presenting  testimony  before  that  committee  upon 
that  subject  and  finally  a  report  was  made  by  the  committee 
to  the  several  houses  recommending  the  passage  of  the  bill 
with  certain  amendments. 


10 

The  most  important  of  these  amendments  provides  that  if 
a  channel  is  constructed  along  the  Desplaines  river  it  shall  be 
of  a  capacity  of  not  less  than  600,000  cubic  feet  of  water  per 
minute,  and  shall  be  not  less  than  160  feet  wide  on  the  bot- 
tom and  not  less  than  18  feet  deep.  This  capacity  is  the  same 
that/is  recommended  in  the  report  of  the  Commission  as 
necessary  to  carry  off  the  storm  water  and  prevent  it  from 
backing  the  sewage  into  the  lake  in  flood  times. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  bill  has  been  so  amended  as  to 
require  expensive  iron  bridges  to  be  built  by  the  corporation 
upon  the  demand  of  the  towns  along  the  channel,  but  this  is 
not  true.  The  onl}^  requirement  on  this  subject  is  that  bridges 
over  the  navigable  part  of  the  channel  shall  be  so  constructed 
so  as  to  allow  of  the  passage  of  vessels.  Neither  is  it  true,  as 
has  been  said,  that  the  bill  gives  away  the  water  power  to  be 
created  at  Joliet.  The  channel,  according  to  the  plans  of  the 
engineers,  is  to  be  built  to  a  point  in  Joliet  where  the  water 
power  will  be  greatest.  The  law  is  well  settled  that  when 
water  escapes  from  an  artificial  channel  into  a  public  river,  all 
right  of  property  or  control  over  it  is  gone  from  the  propriet- 
ors of  the  channel.     See  Adams  v.  Slater,  8  Brad.  72. 

An  amendment  was,  however,  put  upon  the  bill  in  the 
House,  upon  the  motion  of  Mr.  Browne,  of  LaSalle  County, 
which  requires  the  purchase  of  a  sewage  farm  and  the  treat- 
ment of  the  sewage  with  certain  named  chemicals.  No  doubt 
some  voted  for  this  amendment  under  the  mistaken  impression 
that  it  is  practicable  to  extract  from  the  sewage  a  valuable 
fertilizer  to  be  introduced  into  commerce.  It  has  been  deter- 
mined in  those  parts  of  the  country  where  fertilizers  have  the 
highest  merchantable  value,  as  in  Boston  and  Providence,  that, 
in  the  present  state  of  the  arts,  fertilizing  material  cannot  be 
economically  extracted  from  sewage.  (See  Boston  City  doc- 
uments, 18S7,  No,  70,  page  18). 


11 

There  are  some  reasons  that  seem  to  the  committee  to  be 
of  great  weight  in  favor  of  the  passage  of  the  bill,  even  with 
this  objectionable  amendment.  If  the  bill  were  to  become  a 
law,  we  may  reasonably  expect,  from  subsequent  legislation, 
such  a  modification  of  this  amendment  as  would  free  the  mat- 
ter from  serious  embarrassment.  In  fact,  such  a  modification 
was  at  one  time  agreed  upon. 

You  call  our  especial  attention  to  the  Roche-Winston  bil* 
now  pending  in  the  Senate,  and  request  a  statement  of  its 
scope  and  probable  utility. 

The  bill  makes  the  city  of  Chicago  a  Drainage  District 
and  gives  the  corporate  authorities  of  the  city  the  powers 
expressed  in  the  act  of  June  22,  1SS5.  It  expressly  gives  the 
city  authority  to  construct  the  Bowmanville  cut-off  for  the 
diversion  of  the  flood  waters  of  the  upper  Desplaines  and 
North  Branch  and  to  build  a  dam  or  levee  along  the  east  bank 
of  the  Desplaines  at  Summitt,  to  prevent  tiiat  river  from  run- 
ning over  into  Mud  Lake  and  thence  into  the  Chicago  River, 
in  flood  times.  The  bill  gives  the  usual  powers  to  enable  the 
city  to  acquire  right  of  way,  etc.  The  cost  of  constructing 
and  maintaining  this  work  is  "/o  be  defrayed  by  special  assess- 
ment upon  the  property  benefited  thereby^  within  such  district 
(the  city  of  Chicago)  alone." 

If  a  Metropolitan  municipality  shall  be  hereafter  created 
and  permission  given  it  to  dispose  of  the  sewage  by  way  of 
the  Desplaines  river  and  through  such  a  channel  as  we  have 
described,  this  cut-off  will  answer  all  the  purposes  of  its  con- 
struction. So  long  as  we  use  the  canal  for  sewage  disposal, 
as  now,  this  cut-off  will  be  useful  in  controlling  the  flood 
waters  of  the  Desplaines  and  North  Branch,  and  reducing  the 
violent  flushings  which  occasionally  scour  the  Chicago  river, 
carrying  the  sludge  and  filth  into  the  lake. 

The  Roche- Winston  bill  was  not  intended  to  antagonize 
or  take  the  place  of  the  Metropolitan  plan  of  organization,  as 


12 

contained  in  the  Hurd  bill.  On  the  contrary,  the  Bow- 
manville  cut-off  is  a  part  of  the  "  Desplaines  System,"  and  its 
construction  is  only  consistent  with  the  adoption  and  carrying 
out  of  that  plan  under  such  an  organization. 

The  question  is  raised  whether  that  work  is  the  proper 
subject  of  a  special  assessment  upon  the  land  of  the  city  of 
Chicago,  or  in  other  words,  whether  the  expense  of  it  is  not 
in  the  nature  of  a  general  burden  to  be  borne  by  general 
taxation.  This  is  a  question  of  law  ujoon  which  the  com- 
mittee express  no  opinion.  The  bill  provides  that  the  work 
shall  be  done  by  special  assessment,  as  that  is  the  only  way  it 
can  be  done  without  submitting  the  act  to  a  vote  of  the  people 
which  would  cause  the  delay  it  was  the  purpose  of  the  bill  to 
avoid.  It  is  desirable  then,  that  both  bills  should  become  law 
at  once  and  the  people  given  their  choice  under  which  the 
work  shall  be  done. 

Under  the  Hurd  bill  no  more  money  can  be  raised  by 
taxation  or  by  borrowing,  in  any  one  year,  than  is  required  to 
be  expended  in  that  year.  It  is  estimated  that  it  will  require 
from  seven  to  ten  years  to  complete  the  work,  and  that  the 
amount  to  be  raised  and  expended  will  not  exceed  $2,500,000 
in  any  one  year. 

Your  committee  believe  that  nothing  less  than  the  adop- 
tion and  completion  of  the  whole  system  will  remedy  the 
great  evils  from  which  we  are  suffering,  and  that  the  city  and 
its  suburbs  can  well  afford  the  cost  involved  for  the  relief 
which  it  will  bring. 

Daniel  L.  Siiorey,       I  Committee 

MuRRY  Nelson,  q^i 

H.  B.  Hurd,  ^      Maiti  Drainage 

Martin  A.  Ryerson,  ,    rzr  >        7 

-r,  T  (ifid    Water  Swhfily. 

Bryan  Lathrop,  J  -^^^ 


REPORT  OF  THE  COMMITTEE         b 


Theatres  AND  Public  Halls 


EXECUTIVE  COMMITTEE 


OF  THE 


Citizens'  Association 


OF  CHICAGO. 


Adopted  and  Ordered  Printed^  October^  i88j. 


CITIZENS'  ASSOCIATION, 

Rooms,   33   Merchants'    Building, 

CHICAGO,  1887. 


TO    THE    EXECUTIVE    COMMITTEE 


OP    THE 


Citizens'   Association   of    Chicago. 


The  Committee  on  Theatres  and  Public  Halls  respectfully 
present  the  following  report: 

The  reports  of  previous  committees  have  been  so  comprehen- 
sive and  thorough  that  the  present  committee  has  not  felt  so 
much  the  urgency  for  an  additional  report  as  the  necessity  for 
amendments  to  the  City  Ordinances  prescribing  the  mode  of 
construction  and  controlling  the  management  of  Public  Halls 
and  Theatres,  and  for  the  energetic  enforcement  of  the  ordi- 
nance. 

Your  committee  are  unanimously  of  the  opinion  that  the  City 
authorities  should  assume  the  responsibility  of  constant  superin- 
tendence of  all  Theatres  and  Public  Halls;  and  recommend 
daily  inspection  and  supervision  under  authority  of  Citv  Ordin- 
ances by  officers  under  control  of  the  Fire  Marshal,  In  the 
opinion  of  your  committee,  this  is  the  only  means  of  promoting 
and  enforcing  such  discipline  as  will  render  our  Public  Halls 
comparatively  safe  in  case  of  fire  or  panic.  The  firemen  on  duty 
at  public  halls  and  theatres  should  have  police  authority,  should 
control  all  fire  apparatus  and  exits,  and  enforce  the  common  use 
of  such  exits  as  are  provided  for  emergencies,  and  co-operate 
with  the  management  in  the  education  of  audiences  to  use  them 
and  become  familiar  with  them. 

The  Ordinances  relating  to  Theatres  and  other  Public  Build- 
ings under  which  the  City  authorities  are  now  acting,  are  good 
in  the  main,  but  need  amendments  and  additional  provisions, 
but  above  all,  need  enforcement.     Machinery  not  in  constant  use, 


becomes  rusty  and  useless;  so  laws  which  are  not  enforced  be- 
come inoperative  and  obsolete. 

Section  1 131  Revised  Ordinances,  is  defective  in  that  the  "  com- 
petent and  experienced  firemen  "  provided  for  "  in  every  theatre 
with  accommodations  for  1,000  or  more  persons"  are  employed 
by  the  proprietor  or  lessee,  and  while  such  fireman  are  required 
by  ordinance  to  report  to  the  Fire  Marshal  and  be  subject  to 
his  orders,  they  are  practically  independent  of  him,  and  are  not 
required  to  report  to  him  daily  or  at  any  stated  intervals^  but 
being  in  the  employment  and  under  pay  of  the  lessees  or  owners, 
are  naturally  lenient  to  them. 

Your  committee  recommend  the  amendment  of  Section  1 131  so 
as  to  make  it  the  duty  of  the  Fire  Marshal  to  detail  one  or  more 
firemen  from  the  regular  force  under  his  command,  who  shall 
have  police  authority  for  duty  in  each  theatre  and  public  hall 
while  audiences  are  assembled.  Also  that  Section  1125  of  same 
ordinance  be  amended  by  expunging  the  following  clause,  viz: 
"  Any  other  contrivance  having  same  effect  and  approved  by  the 
Superintendent  of  Buildings  may  be  used  instead  of  the  venti- 
lator above  described,"  and  that  the  apparatus  to  be  used  be  de- 
fined to  mean  a  ventilator  of  sufficient  capacity  arranged  with 
ample  overweighted  valves  or  shutters  which  will  open  automat- 
ically in  case  of  fire  upon  or  over  the  stage.  Such  automatic 
action  would  result  from  the  cutting,  breaking  or  burning  of  a 
cord  so  arranged  as  to  support  the  over-weight.  See  Section 
1 1 38  of  the  proposed  Ordinances. 

The  recent  appalling  calamity  at  the  Opera  Comique  in  Paris 
sufficiently  emphasises  this  recommendation.  Doubtless  such  an 
appliance  would  have  prevented  this  catastrophe.  The  terrible 
disaster  at  Exeter,  England,  which  occurred  after  this  paper  was 
first  put  in  type,  is  another  melancholy  warning. 

Your  committee  also  recommend  the  amendment  of  said  or- 
dinance in  respect  to  construction  of  Public  Halls,  proscenium 
walls  and  openings  in  same,  fire  proofing  auditorium  floors,  and 
of  various  other  details  for  promoting  security  against  fires  and 
panic,  and  have  prepared  a  draft  of  an  ordinance  which  they  re- 


commend  to  the   immediate  attention   of  the  Common  Council 
and  respectfully  ask  for  its  early  enactment  and  enforcement. 

Whilst  a  few  of  the  proprietors  have  made  substantial 
and  admirable  improvements,  the  majority  of  the  old  theatres 
continue  to  be  in  dangerous  condition,  and  we  recom- 
mend that  the  city  authorities  consider  to  what  extent  they 
would  be  justified  in  withholding  licenses  from  such  as  are  most 
dangerous.  However,  your  committee  suggest  that  while  there 
exists  such  active  demand  for  business  property,  very  little  excuse 
can  be  offered  by  the  owners  of  such  buildings  for  continuing  to 
hazard  the  lives  of  the  public  by  perpetuating  the  existence  of 
dangerous  assembly  halls  of  any  description:  their  property  can, 
in  many  instances,  be  used  to  better  advantage  for  other  pur- 
poses. The  public  should  understand  that  so  long  as  large 
audiences  are  permitted  to  assemble  in  buildings  badly  construct- 
ed, of  inflammable  material,  there  will  be  danger  of  recurrence 
of  the  horrible  calamities  which  have  occurred  at  the  Brooklyn 
Theatre;  Theatre  Comique,  Paris;  at  Exeter,  and  elsewhere. 

Your  committee  susrgest  that  managers  or  lessees  of  theatres 
and  public  halls  print  on  their  daily  programmes,  the  provisions 
of  Sections  919  and  933,  Revised  Ordinances,  and  floor  plans  of 
Auditorium  and  Galleries,  showing  the  location  of  all  exits, 
that  every  exit  be  opened  at  the  close  of  each  entertainment, 
and  that  ushers  be  required  to  educate  the  public  to  their 
common  use  by  frequently  pointing  them  out  to  patrons  of  the 
house  on  entering.  It  is  believed  this  would  prove  of  great 
service  in  the  event  of  panic,  which  is  liable  to  occur  in  the 
.best  constructed  and  best  managed  theatre  or  hall. 

It  has  been  found,  where  panics  have  occurred,  that  audiences 
'Seek  exit  at  the  principal  entrance  because  they  are  almost  uni- 
versally compelled  to  exit  there  on  ordinary  occasions,  the  side 
exits  being,  in  most  cases,  neglected.  The  public  should  edu- 
cate itself  in  respect  to  the  facilities  provided  for  emergencies  and 
get  accustomed  to  their  use,  so  that  in  the  event  of  fire  or  panic, 
they  may  be  of  service  to  others  as  well  as  themselves,  in 
avoiding  the  usual  calamity  of  crushing  and  maiming  by  an  un- 
thinking mob.     When  it  is  considered  that  a  panic  in  a  large 


assembly,  even  in  the  open  air,  free  from  fire  or  smoke,  is  usually 
attended  with  loss  of  life,  the  importance  of  self-education  is  of 
even  more  importance  to  all  who  attend  theatres  and  public 
lectures  than  the  enforcement  of  rules  and  ordinances. 

The  ciMom  of  taking  small  children  to  crowded  assemblages 
is  reprehensible,  for  in  case  of  panic  and  crush  there  is  little  or  no 
probability  of  their  escape,  and  they  embarrass  the  adults. 

The  disasters  which  have  occurred  during  the  short  period 
markinsT  the  existence  of  this  committee  have  caused  its  reports 
to  appear,  in  retrospect,  weak  and  inadequate.  After  the  Theatre 
Comique  disaster  in  1887,  the  report  prepared  for  publication 
last  year  was  abandoned,  because,  in  the  light  of  such  a  terrible 
occurrence,  all  temporizing  with  existing  abuses  and  evils  con- 
nected with  the  construction  and  management  of  our  public 
halls  seemed  absurd,  and  it  was  decided  to  recommend  adequate 
amendments  of  existing  ordinances  to  include  authority  vested 
in  the  Fire  Marshal  to  enforce  them.  It  is  hoped  that  the  same 
feelino-s  will  prevail  generally  and  prove  sufficient  to  arouse  the 
public  to  action,  and  secure  the  immediate  passage  of  the  pro- 
posed amended  ordinance,  submitted  herewith. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

S.  D.   KiMBARK,  \ 

Geo.  C.  Prussing,   |         Committee 
J.  Austin  Brown,     /  on 

Marx   Wineman,     >  Theatres 

Dankmar  Adler,   1  and 

John  W.  Root,  \PnbUc  Buildings. 

C.  W.  Drew.  / 

Chicago,  October,  1887. 


Sections  919  and  923  of  the  Revised  Ordinances  referred 
to  in  the  Report: 

919.  The  owner  or  lessee  of  every  licensed  theatre,  hall,  or 
other  building,  shall  post  and  maintain  during  the  period  of  his 
license,  in  some  conspicuous  place  near  the  main  entrance,  a 
printed  certificate,  properly  framed,  showing  the  class  of  enter- 
tainments for  'which  said  theatre  or  hall  is  licensed ;  its  seating 
capacity;  the  number  of  exits,  and  size  of  each;  and  the  number 
of  aisles  in  each  circle,  which  said  certificate  shall  be  signed  by 
the  fire  marshal;  and  shall  also  state,  if  such  be  the  fact,  that  he 
has  personally  examined  said  building,  and  considers  it  safflP 

923.  No  chairs,  stools,  or  seats  of  any  description  shall  be 
placed  or  permitted  to  remain  in,  or  ficross  the  lobby,  aisle,  or 
passageways,  in  any  theatre,  hall,  or  other  public  building,  when 
the  same  is  occupied  by  the  public,  under  a  penalty  of  one  hun- 
dred dollars,  for  each  and  every  violation  of  this  section. 


% 


PROPOSED  AMENDED  ORDINANCE 


WITH    REGARD  TO 


Ilieatres  iiiii]  Oilier  Boildiiiffs  lor  I'ylilic  kmUm. 

o  o 


B£  IT  ORDAINED  by  the  City  Council  of  the  City  of 
Chicago^  as  follozus :  that  sections  iii^,  1118,  11 19,  11 20, 
1121,  1122,  1134,  1135,  1126,  1137,  1128,1129,1130,  1131, 
1 132,  1139^  and  1 140  of  i\rticle  IX,  Revised  Ordinances, 
of  the  City  of  Chicao^o,  be  and  they  are  hereby  amended,  so 
as  to  read  as  follows  : 

Sec.  1 1 15.  Any  person  desiring  a  permit  to  erect  any  theatre 
or  public  hall  shall,  before  commencing  the  erection  thereof  make 
application  to  the  Superintendent  of  Buildings,  in  compliance 
with  Section  1103  of  the  Revised  Ordinances,  and  shall  leave 
on  file  in  the  office  of  the  Commissioner  of  Buildings  a  full  and 
complete  set  of  plans  of  the  theatre  or  public  hall  proposed 
to  be    erected. 

Sec.  1 1 18.  Theati'es  and  public  halls  with  accommodations  for 
three  hundred  persons  or  less,  shall  have  no  portion  of  the  main 
floor  elevated  to  a  greater  height  than  thirty-five  feet  above 
the  street  grade.  Theatres  and  public  halls  with  accommoda- 
tions for  more  than  three  hundred  and  not  exceeding  six  hun- 
dred persons  shall  have  the  main  floor  not  over  twenty-five  feet 
above  the  street  grade;  but  the  foregoing  restrictions  as  to 
height  of  floors  shall  not  apply  to  theatres  and  halls  in  build- 
ings which  are  constructed  entirel}*  of  incombustible  materials. 
The  average  level  of  the  main  floor  of  any  theatre  or  public  hall 
with  accommodations  for  more  than  six  hundred  persons 
shall  not  be  more  than  ten  feet  above  the  street  grade.  In  all 
theatres  there  shall  be  a  proscenium  wall  built  of  brick  of  speci- 
fied thickness  as  follows:    Not   less   than    24  inches  thick  to  the 


10 

level  of  the  stage  floor,  nor  less  than  20  inches  thick  from  the 
level  of  the  stage  floor  to  the  spring  of  the  proscenium  arch,  nor 
less  than  16  inches  thick  from  the  spring  of  the  proscenium  arch 
extending  through  and  four  feet  above  the  roof;  this  brick  wall 
to  extend  entirely  across  the  building  from  the  floor  of  the  stage 
to  the  ground.  The  above  is  subject  to  the  following  modifica- 
tions: That  within  the  limits  of  the  curtain  opening,  the  wall 
below  the  stage  floor  need  not  be  more  than  12  inches  thick, 
and  that  above  the  curtain  opening  the  thickness  of  this  wall 
maybe  reduced  to  12  inches,  with  solid  brick  buttresses  not  less 
than  two  feet  wide  and  projecting  not  less  than  four  inches  on 
each  side;  such  buttresses  being  placed  not  further  than  14  feet 
apart,  or  such  wall  above  the  curtain  opening  may  be  constructed 
of  a  frame  work  of  wrought  iron  or  steel  in  which  no  part  of 
any  member  shall  be  subjected  to  a  strain  of  more  than  15,000 
pounds  to  the  square  inch,  and  which  frame  work  of  iron  or 
steel  shall  be  covered  on  each  side  with  a  wall  of  porous  ter- 
ra cotta  or  hollow  tile;  these  two  walls  being  tied  to  each  other 
at  least  every  three  feet  in  each  direction  by  bond  pieces  of  the 
same  material. 

All  openings  required  in  any  part  of  said  wall  (except  princi- 
pal or  stage  opening)  shall  have  iron  doors  made  of  sheet  [iron 
not  less  than  i/^  inch  thick  riveted  to  angle  iron  not  less  than 
i3y(xi3/(  inch,  or  to  bar  iron  not  less  than  5^x2  inches.  This  for 
doors  of  30  square  feet  or  less.  Doors  of  greater  area  shall 
have  proportionatel}'^  heavier  thickness  of  sheet  and  of  frame. 

Sec.  1 1 19.  All  auditorium  floors  in  theatres  shall  be  fire- 
proofed  by  inserting  hollow  tile,  porous  terra  cotta  or  brick 
work  between  or  under  the  joists  and  by  a  mortar  deafening  at 
least  1 1^  inches  thick  above  the  joists,  if  the  said  joists  are  of 
wood.  But  if  such  joists  are  of  iron,  the  deafening  above  the 
same  may  be  omitted  and  plastering  on  wire  cloth  kept  at  least 
1  %    inches  away  from  the  joists  may  be  used   below  tlie   joists. 

Sec.  1 1 20.  All  partitions  in  or  around  or  over  or  under  thea- 
tres or  public  halls  accommodating  three  hundred  or  more  people 
shall  be  constructed  of  brick  work  or  hollow  tile  or  porous  terra 
cotta. 


11 

Sec.  1 121.  The  preceding  sections  shall  apply  only  to  thea- 
tres or  public  halls  that  may  hereafter  be  erected.  The  fol- 
lowing sections  shall  apply  to  theatres  and  public  halls  that  are 
now  as  well  as  those  which  hereafter  may  be  erected  or  con- 
structed. 

Sec.  1122.  All  egress  openings  in  theatres  and  public  halls 
shall  be  so  kept  as  to  allow,  at  all  times  during  the  occupancy  of 
said  theatre  or  public  hall,  free  and  unobstructed  egress  there- 
from;  and  all  egress  openings  in  theatres  and  public  halls 
shall  have  the  word  "  exit  "  conspicuously  placed  over  them, 
and  shall  otherwise  conform  to  the  requirements  of  Section 
1069  of  the  Revised  Ordinances.  The  aisles  or  passages  in  such 
halls  shall,  at  all  times,  be  kept  unobstructed. 

Sec.  1 1 24.  All  materials  used  for  scenery,  shall  be  coated 
with  such  preparation  as  will  make  it  non-inflammable,  and  in 
all  theatres  hereafter  to  be  erected  an  iron  curtain  shall  be  so  placed 
in  position  as  to  cut  off  communication  with  the  stage  in  any  case 
of  emergency.  The  operating  of  said  iron  curtain  to  be  controlled 
by  the  firemen  detailed  for  duty  in  said  theatre,  and  this  curtain 
shall  be  used  at  least  once  every  day. 

Sec.  1 125.  In  all  theatres  hereafter  to  be  erected  all  stair- 
ways shall  be  built  entirely  of  incombustible  material,  and  none 
but  incombustible  material  shall  be  used  in  the  construction  or 
decoration  of  the  stair  walls. 

Sec.  1126.  If  any  enlargement  or  alteration  or  improvement 
be  made  in  any  now  existing  theatre  or  public  hall,  other  than 
mere  redecoration  of  the  same  or  resetting  of  seats,  then  all  of 
the  provisions  of  this  ordinance  and  article  governing  the  con- 
struction of  new  theatres  or  public  halls  shall  apply  to  such  en- 
largement or  alteration  or  improvement. 

Sec.  1 127.  All  alleys,  courts  or  passages  upon  which  any  exit 
from  any  theatre  or  public  hall  may  open,  shall  be  kept  free  from 
obstructions  and  nuisances  of  every  kind;  and  during  the  occu- 
pancy of  such  theatres  and  public  halls  by  an  audience,  while 
such  audience  is  passing  out,  a   clear  passage   way,  equal  to  the 


12 

width  of  exit,  doors,  or  stairs  opening  to  sucli  alley,  court  or  pas- 
sage way,  shall  be  maintained  for  the  use  of  said  audience.  It 
Is  made  the  duty  of  the  police  and  health  officers  of  this  city 
to  secure  a  rigid   enforcement  to  this  section. 


t> 


Sec.  112S.  All  theatres  or  other  places  of  public  amusement 
having  a  seating  capacity  of  over  five  hundred  persons  and  having 
a  platform  or  stage,  and  which  use  drop  curtains  or  shifting 
scenery,  shall  have  a  suitable  ventilator  or  -ventilation  pipe  not 
less  than  4  feet  in  diameter  and  increasing  by  one  inch  in  diame- 
ter for  every  100  square  feet  of  stage  area  above  2,000  scjuare 
feet,  placed  upon  the  roof,  extending  fifteen  feet  above  the  roof 
and  opening  at  the  bottom  to  the  space  above  the  stage.  Such 
ventilator  to  be  arranged  with  valves  or  shutters  which  shall 
work  automatically  so  as  to  completely  open  the  ventilator  pipe 
in  case  of  fire. 

In  all  such  buildings  a  water  stand  pipe  and  water  plug  shall 
be  placed  in  or  on  the  stage  or  platform,  or  in  its  immediate 
vicinity,  which  [shall  be  connected  with  the  water  pipes  or  street 
mains  of  the  city,  and  shall  be  put  in  under  the  direction  of  the 
Fi]-e  Marshal  and  Superintendent  of  Buildings,  and  to  their  sat- 
isfaction. Hose  shall  be  attached  to  such  stand  pipe,  of  such  size 
as  may  be  directed  by  said  Marshal,  to  have  nozzle  and  stop 
cock  attached  thereto;  such  hose  shall  be  of  sufficient  length  to 
extend  to  the  farthest  limits  of  such  building  or  place  of  amuse- 
ment, and  shall  at  all  times  be  kept  in  good  order  and  rejoair, 
filled  with  water  under  pressure,  and  readv  for  immediate  use. 
A  tank  or  tanks  containing  not  less  than  3,000  gallons  of  water 
shall  be  placed  on  the  roof  of  every  theatre  or  public  hall  con- 
taining same,  and  all  pipes  and  hose  20  or  more  feet  above  the 
street  grade  shall  be  connected  therewith. 


rt  ' 


Sec.  1 129.  All  theatres  and  public  halls  with  accommoda- 
tions for  one  thousand  or  more  persons,  shall  have  at  least  one 
standpipe  and  iron  ladder  in  the  street  or  alley  on  the  outside  of 
the  building,  from  the  ground  to  the  roof,  with  hose  attachments 
close  to  a  window  or  door  at  each  floor  or  gallery.  It  shall  be 
the  duty  of  all  owners,  agents,  lessees  and  occupants  of  such 
theatre  or  public  hall,  to  provide    such    other    fire    extinguishing 


13 

apparatus  at  such  points  about  the  building,  as  the  Fire  Marshal 
shall  direct.  Such  theatre  or  hall  shall  also  be  provided  with 
a  fire  alarm  telegraph  apparatus,  connected  by  the  necessary 
wires,  with  the  headquarters  of  the  city  and  fire  alarm  telegraphy 
or  such  other  place  or  places  as  the  Fire  Marshal  shall  direct. 

Sec.  1 1 30.  It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Fire  Marshal  to  detail 
one  or  more  uniformed  firemen  from  the  regular  force  to  be  on 
duty  in  any  theatre  or  public  hall  with  accommodations  for  one 
thousand  or  more  persons;  said  firemen  to  receive  instructions 
from  and  report  nightly  and  after  each  performance  to  his  su- 
perior officer,  any  negligence  or  violation  of  any  of  the  provis- 
ions of  this  ordinance  on  the  part  of  any  lessee  or  manager  of 
any  such  theatre,  and  it  shall  be  his  duty  to  see  that  all  fire  ap- 
paratus required  is  in  its  proper  place  and  in  efficient  and  work- 
ing order  during  each  entertainment  in  such  theatre  or  public 
hall.  It  is  hereby  also  made  the  duty  of  the  lessee  or  man- 
ao-er  of  any  theatre  or  public  hall,  with  an  accommodation 
for  one  thousand  or  more  persons,  to  cause  to  be  printed  on 
every  programme  a  diagram  of  the  different  floors  of  such 
theatre,  locating  in  conspicuous  manner  the  exits  and  means  of 
egress  to  the  street  or  alley  to  which  said  exits  lead,  as  the  case 
may  be. 

Sec.  1131.  The  license  for  each  theatre  and  public  hall  shall 
state  the  number  of  persons  it  has  accommodations  for,  and  no 
more  than  that  number  shall  be  allowed  to  enter  such  theatre  or 
hall,  at  any  one  time.  This  number  shall  be  governed  by  the 
number  of  feet  of  exit  of  the  doors,  aisles,  passages  and  stairs 
and  shall  be  computed  by  the  Superintendent  of  Buildings  at 
the  rate  of  three  feet  of  width  of  doors,  aisles,  passages  or  stairs 
for  every  two  hundred  persons  or  fraction  thereof. 

Sec.  1 132.  The  Superintendent  of  buildings  shall  have  the 
power  to  order  any  theatre  or  public  hall  to  be  closed  whenever 
it  is  discovered  that  there  is  any  violation  of  the  provisions  of 
this  ordinance  and  article,  until  the  same  are  complied  with,  and 
any  person  who  shall  refuse,  fail  or  neglect  to  comply  with  such 
order  shall  be  deemed  to  have  violated  the  provisions  of  this  or- 
dinance and  article. 


14 

Sec,  11391^.  The  Superintendent  of  Buildings,  the  Fire 
Marshal  and  firemen  to  be  detailed  under  authority  of  Section  1 130 
shall  have  the  right  to  enter  any  theatre  or  public  hall  and 
all  parts  thereof  at  reasonable  times,  especially  when  oc- 
cupied by  the  public,  in  order  to  properly  judge  of  and 
discharge  their  respective  duties;  and  any  person  who  shall  refuse 
admission  to  such  officer  or  officers,  or  shall  place  or  attempt  to 
place  any  obstacles  in  the  way  of  such  officer  or  officers  while 
engaged  in  the  performance  of  their  duties  at  any  time  shall  be 
deemed  to  have  violated  the  provisions  of  this  ordinance. 

Sec.  1 140.  Any  person  failing  to  comply  with  or  guilty  of  a 
violation  of  any  provision  of  this  ordinance  or  article,  where  no 
other  penalty  is  provided,  shall  be  subject  to  a  fine  of  not  less 
than  tw^enty-five  dollars,  nor  more  than  two  hundred  dollars 
for  each  and  every  offense.  Every  person  violating  any  of  the 
provisions  of  this  ordinance  or  article,  shall  be  deemed  guilty  of 
a  separate  offense  for  each  and  every  day  the  same,  said  viola- 
tion, continues,  and  shall  be  subject  therefor  to  the  penalty  im- 
posed by  this  ordinance  and  article.  Any  owner,  builder  or 
contractor  who  shall  construct  any  building  in  violation  of  this 
ordinance  or  article,  and  any  architect  having  charge  of  such 
building,  who  shall  permit  it  to  be  so  constructed  shall  be  liable 
to  the  penalties  provided  and  imposed  by  this  ordinance  and 
article. 


/'^ 


REP-ORT 


SMOKE   COMMITTEE 


Citizens'  Association 


OR     CHICAQO. 


ROOM   33,  MERCHANTS'  BUILDING. 


A1A.Y,    ISSO. 


CHICAGO  : 
Ceo.  E.  Marshall  &  Co.,  Stationers  and  PKi.NTiiRS, 

144   &    146    MONROE   STREET. 


ESTABLISHED   1874. 


Citizens'  ASvSociation 


OF     CHICA.GO. 


ROOM    8H,    MERCHANTS'    BUILDING, 


EXECUTIVE  COMMllTEE,  1889. 


JOHN  J.  GLESSNER, 

President. 

FRANCIS   B.  PEABODY, 

JAMES   H.  McVICKER, 
EDSON    KEITH, 

O.  S.  A.  SrRAGUE, 

WM.  A.  FULLER, 

LOUIS   WAMPOLD, 


E.  NELvSON    BLAKE, 

/  'icc-Presidenl. 

CHRISTOPH    HOTZ, 

EDWIN   LEE   BROWN, 

JOHN   G.  SHORTALL, 

HENRY    FIELD, 

J.  HARLEY    BRADLEY, 
MURRY   NELSON, 


J.  V.   FARWELL,  jR. 


GEO.  SCHNEIDER, 

Treasurer: 


J.   C.   AMBLER, 

Setreiarv. 


To  the  Exectdive  CovimiUec  of  the  Citizens'  Association  : 

The  undersigned,  Committee  on  Smoke,  in  accordance  with 
the  request  and  instructions  transmitted  to  tlieni  in  January, 
proceeded  to  the  investigation  of  the  "smoke  nuisance,"  after  due 
deliberation  as  to  the  proper  method  of  conducting  it,  in  the  light  of 
past  experience  and  of  more  recentl}^  acquired  information.  They 
called  to  their  assistance  a  mechanical  engineer  of  intelligence  and 
acquirements,  who  has  made  a  thorough  examination  of  the  methods 
employed  for  the  prevention  of  smoke  in  stationary  boilers,  and  has 
condensed  and  tabulated  his  observations,  as  will  be  seen  by 
reference  to  the  accompanying  statements. 

The  observations  so  made  extended  to  333  establishments 
where  steam  is  in  constant  use  for  various  purposes,  including  839 
boilers,  of  which  234  places  have  in  use  devices  for  the  prevention 
of  smoke,  and  99  have  no  apparatus  for  the  purjDose  ;  the  particulars 
are  minutely  set  forth  in  the  tables  prepared  by  the  expert.  From 
an  analysis  of  these  tables  it  will  be  seen  that,  although  the  devices 
in  use  have  a  very  marked  effect  on  the  result,  as  to  whether  the 
smoke  emitted  from  the  chimneys  is  very  black  or  offensive,  so 
much  so  as  to  incline  us  to  the  opinion  that  a  proper  apparatus  is 
almost  indispensable  for  the  complete  suppression  of  the  smoke 
nuisance  ;  yet  we  believe  that  the- greatest  amount  of  good  can  be 
accomplished  by  careful  attention  to  the  firing,  and  the  use  of  a 
good  quality  of  coal.  B>-  combining  these  three  conditions — an 
efficient  smoke  preventing  device,  a  fair  quality  of  coal,  and  careful 
firing — the  offense  arising  from  the  chimneys  in  llie  business  and 
manufacturing  parts  of  the  city  can  be  reduced  to  insignificance. 

Good  results  have  been  obtained  by  mingling  coke,  or 
anthracite  screenings,  with  soft  coal;  but  that  is  practiced  to  but  a 
small  extent,  and  its  beneficial  effect  is  commensurate,  after  all, 
with  the  observance  of  proper  conditions  as  to  use,  which  are  a  part 
of,  and  included  in  the  general  term — careful  firing.  We  see,  by 
examination  of  the  tables  given,  that  the  smoke  arising  from  some 
chimneys  where  the  poorest  quality  of  coal  is  used,  is  reported  as 
very  light,  when  accompanied  In-  the  observ^ation  of  careful,  or 
automatic  mechanical  stoking. 

—5— 


The  practice  of  "  crowding  the  furnaces  "  with  fuel  is  one  of 
the  most  prolific  sources  of  offensive  smoke  that  we  have  to  contend 
with  ;  this  is  made  necessary,  or  believed  to  be  necessary'  from 
the  insufficient  size  of  boilers,  or  of  chimneys,  to  perform  their 
work.  The  fires  have  to  be  urged  to  their  utmost  capacity  to 
keep  up  the  requisite  amount  of  steam,  and  this  is  done  at  a  great 
waste  of  coal,  the  custom  being  to  put  on  as  much  fuel  as  the 
furnace  will  hold,  and  then  rake  it  out  from  below  when  insuffic- 
ienth',  gr  not  thoroughly,  burned,  to  make  room  for  a  fresh  supply 
above  ;  the  result  being  that  the  outer  air  gets  an  amount  of  dense 
smoke  that  annoys  the  public,  while  the  proprietor  of  the  establish- 
ment pays  for  a  large  amount  of  fuel  of  which  he  gets  no  benefit. 
The  same  result  occurs  from  heedlessness  of  engineers  and  firemen 
who,  from  indolence  or  ignorance,  completely  fill  their  furnaces 
with  coal  at  certain  periods,  and  pay  no  further  attention  to  their 
fires  until  the  time  comes  to  give  the  furnace  a  fresh  charge  of 
fuel  ;  all  chimneys  where  such  practices  obtain  emit  dense  smoke 
more  than  half  the  time.  Firing  should  be  as  intelligently  done  as 
any  other  work  ;  modern  requirements  call  for  perfection  in  most 
occupations  or  trades ;  j-et  in  many  cases  this  important  business  is 
left  to  the  discretion,  or  want  of  discretion,  of  men  who  seem  to  take 
no  interest  in  the  welfare  of  their  emploj-ers,  or  the  convenience  of 
the  public.  Sometimes  a  mistaken  idea  of  economy  induces 
merchants  to  keep  a  cheap  man  in  the  boiler  room,  who  will  waste 
more  fuel  than  the  amount  of  his  monthl}'  wages.  Instead  of 
crowding  the  furnaces  by  heaping  up  fuel  upon  half  burned  coal,  the 
stoking  should  be  done  a  little  at  a  time,  so  that  the  greater  surface 
of  the  fire  will  show,  at  all  times,  either  an  incandescent  mass,  or  a 
bright  flame  ;  the  last  charge  of  fuel  should  be  pushed  back  and 
spread  over  this,  and  the  new  charge  put  in  its  place  ;  the  ashes 
should  be  carefulh'  raked  out  at  fixed  and  frequent  periods  ;  by  this 
process  the  steam  can  be  kept  up  at  two-thirds  the  cost  of  the  fuel 
used  in  the  practice  usualh'  adopted — that  of  crowding  the  furnace 
to  its  utmost  capacit}' ;  but  to  accomplish  it  there  must  be  intel- 
ligence and  integrit}'  in  the  boiler  room  as  well  as  in  the  other 
departments  of  the  establishment. 

We  are  of  opinion  that  the  suppression  of  smoke,  as  a 
nuisance,  is  within  the  power  of  those  who  own  the  stationary 
Ijoilers,  and  of  the  men  who  have  charge  of  them  ;  the  former  have 
no  moral  or  legal  right  to  subject  their  immediate  neighbors,  or 
the  public,  to  the  damage  to  health  and  property  caused  by  their 
own    inattention  ;    they   .should    act    in    unison,    and    exert    their 

—6— 


undisputed  authority  to  compel  their  employes  to  do  their  manifest 
duty.  We  have  made  several  attempts  to  get  an  ordinance  passed 
inflicting  a  fine  upon  engineers  and  firemen,  in  cases  where  the 
proprietors  of  estal^lishments  have  furnished  them  with  a  snitable 
device  for  the  prev^ention  of  smoke ;  but  it  has  l>een  hitherto  found 
impossible  to  pass  such  an  ordinance,  and  nothing  remains  to  be 
done,  Init  to  bring  about  a  consensus  of  opini(Mi,  and  unity  of  action 
in  the  premises  by  those  interested. 

If  the  proprietors  will  but  insist  upon  the  o1)ser\-ance  by  their 
engineers  of  certain  conditions,  (which  should  include  the  constant 
application  of  the  smoke  preventing  apparatus,  where  there  is  one, 
under  the  penalty  of  suspension  or  discharge, )  and  supply'  them 
with  a  suitable  device,  and  the  quality  of  coal  found  from  observa- 
tion to  be  appropriate  to  the  set  of  the  boiler,  the  height  of  the 
chimney,  and  the  kind  of  smoke  preventing  apparatus  adopted,  the 
greater  part  of  this  appalling  nuisance  can  be  abated.  The 
proprietors  must,  how^e\-er,  give  to  this  matter  the  proper  measure 
of  their  personal  attention  to  insure  the  desired  result. 

The  principle  of  smoke  prevention  is  extremely  simple ;  but, 
as  it  is  not  generally  understood,  it  may  be  well  to  explain  here  the 
cause  of  smoke,  and  the  method  of  its  prevention.  When  heat  is 
applied  to  bituminous  coal  a  gas  is  generated  which  is  our  ordinary 
illuminating  gas  in  a  crude  state.  It  burns  freely  when  mixed  with 
the  proper  quantity  of  air.  Smoke  results  from  the  failure  to  burn 
this  gas  in  the  furnace.  The  failure  to  burn  the  gas  in  the  furnace 
results  invariably  from  one  of  two  causes  ;  either,  because  air  has 
not  been  admitted  to  mix  with  it  in  proper  quantities  and  in  the 
proper  manner — in  a  thin  sheet,  or  through  small  perforation.s — oi, 
because  the  fireman  has  so  completely  covered  the  grate  bars  with 
fresh  coal,  as  to  leave  no  flame  or  heat  to  ignite  the  gas  after  it 
has  received  the  proper  admixture  of  air. 

Any  device  which  admits  air  in  proper  quantities  into  the 
furnace  will  prevent  smoke,  unless  its  operation  is  defeated  by  bad 
firing ;  that  is,  b}'  piling  coal  upon  the  grate  until  the  flames  are 
smothered,  or  until  more  gas  is  created  than  can  be  absorbed  bj^  the 
amount  of  air  ordinarily  admitted.  It  is  somewhat  easier  and  less 
troublesome  to  fire  badh'  than  to  fire  well,  because  good  firing 
requires  that  a  small  quantity  of  coal  .shall  be  applied  at  frequent 
intervals ;  and  an  indolent  fireman  prefers  to  throw  a  large 
quantity  on  the  grate,  and  to  have  a  longer  interv^al  of  rest.  The 
fireman,  or  the  friendly  engineer,  persuades  the  proprietor  that  any 

—7— 


device  which  he  may    have  adopted  is  a   faihire,   as  this  excuses 
the  acts  of  the  fireman.  ,  / 

We  consider  the  first  step  in  the  direction  of  an  abatement  of 
the  smoke  nuisance  to  be  the  education  of  the  proprietors  of  steam 
boilers  to  the  fact  that  the}-  have  in  their  own  hands  the  cure  of 
the  evil,  as  far  as  their  own  furnaces  are  concerned. 

In  view  of  the  large  percentage  of  inefficient  firemen,  and  of 
their  ability  to  defeat  the  action  of  most  devices,  we  regard  the 
various  self-feeding  furnaces  as  more  to  be  relied  upon  for  the 
prevention  of  smoke  than  any  others,  as  they  are  automatic  in  their 
action,  and  the  best  of  them  seem  almost  invariabl)^  to  produce 
good  results.  The  automatic  furnaces  commend  themselves  to  those 
who  count  the  cost  of  heat  and  power  and  of  smoke  prevention,  as 
they  admit  the  use  of  the  cheapest  fuel  without  making  smoke. 

Several  of  the  devices  mentioned  in  the  ac(X)mpanying  tables 
are  excellent  for  the  purpose  required  ;  specimens  or  patterns  of  all 
.are  within  easy  visiting  distance  of  every  business  establishment  in 
the  cit}'  ;  the  inventors  are  but  too  anxious  to  exhibit  their  appar- 
atus ;  inefficient  S5'stems  should  be  discarded ;  and  a  brief  but 
thorough  examination  should  be  made  of  the  most  approved 
patterns,  wdth  the  object  of  selecting  the  device  best  suited  to  the 
existing  conditions,  which  can  he  readih'  compared  with  others. 
It  certainl}-  is  not  unreasonable  to  ask  for  as  much  attention  to  this 
important  subject  as  would  be  given  to  the  purchase  of  a  carriage, 
or  to  the  introduction  of  house-heating  apparatus,  or  a  kitchen 
range. 

The  City  Council  has  formed  a  committee  to  visit  and  inspect 
the  various  devices  so  that  they  can  report  on  several  patterns,  some 
one  of  which  may  be  found  useful  in  any  given  case :  it  will  afford 
us  pleasure  to  aid  them  in  every  way.  We  shall,  ourselves, "make 
such  a  visit  for  the  purpose  of  verifying  our  expert's  report. 

These  remarks  and  considerations  apply  equally  to  the  prevent- 
ion of  smoke  in  tugs  and  locomotive  engines ;  the  law  with  regard  to 
the  offen.se  in  their  ca.se  makes  the  engineers  subject  to  the  penalty 
imposed  ;  but  no  regard  is  paid  to  it.  Observations  made  after 
navigation  opened,  this  spring,  demonstrated  that  the  greater  part 
of  the  nuisance  can  be  abated  1)y  careful  attention  to  the  fii'ing  ; 
trips  made  with  our  exjiert  on  lioard  showed  this  conclusion  ;  also 
that  soon  after  he  had  left  the  .smoke  burst  forth  again  without 
abatement ;     there    are    devices   on    some   of  the.se    ves.sels    which 

—8— 


modify  its  volume  when  in  use;  but  they  are  not  sufficient,  and  are 
seldom  in  operation.  As  to  locomotives,  there  is  much  difference  in 
the  degree  of  annoyance  on  different  roads,  depending,  as  in  all 
other  cases,  on  the  care  taken  by  the  firemen.  Recent  observations 
show,  however,  that  there  is  an  apparatus  which  will  absolutely 
prevent  smoke  on  locomotives,  and  probably  on  tugs,  and  we  refer 
to  the  notes  of  <^ur  expert  for  an  account  of  it. 

We  have  entered  into  correspondence  with  the  magistrates  of 
some  English  cities  relative  to  the  means  of  suppression  in  vogue 
there  ;  these  do  not  differ  very  materialh'  from  ours  ;  the  devices  do 
not  var}'  in  principle  of  construction  from  those  in  use  here.  The 
powers  conferred  by  law  on  municipal  authorities  are,  in  some 
instances,  greater  than  ours ;  they  have  the  authority,  which  ours 
have  not,  to  compel  the  alteration  of  flues,  and  the  use  of  appliances. 
Their  mode  of  procedure  in  case  of  offenses  is  by  summons  and  fine, 
which  apply  to  the  emplo^^e  as  well  as  the  proprietor  of  an  establish- 
ment offending. 

Our  recommendations  are  :  That,  as  the  Mayor  has  appointed 

^  competent  officer  whose  sole  duty  it  has  become  to  thoroughlj' 

investigate    the   smoke   question,  with   a  view   to   its   speedy   and 

permanent  solution,    the  Citizens'  Associa'tion    shall  tender  to  the 

city  authorities  their  co-operation  in  all  efforts  for  the  suppression  of 

the  nuisance ;  and  that,  as  a  means  to  the  end  desired,  an  ordinance 

be  passed  amplifying  the  scope  of  the  present  city  law  with  regard 

to  the  liabilit}^  of  firemen  and  engineers  of  stationary  engines,  and 

enabling  the  officers  to  suppress  the  nuisance  at  sight ;    and,  that 

the  City  Smoke   Bureau  be  so  constituted  that  daih^   ob.sen-atious 

shall  be  made,  with  the  oly'ect  of  pointing  out  to  delinquents  how 

their   smoking   chimneys   can    be   remedied,   and  of  enforcing  the 

ordinance  in  all  respects.       We  would,   also,  suggest  that  in   any 

general  revision  of  the  Building  Ordinance,  provision  be  made  for 

scientific   construction   of  the   boiler  rooms  and    smoke   stacks   of 

factories  and  large  mercantile  buildings,  with  an  especial  view  to 

smoke  prevention.  ; 

Respectfully   submitted, 

BRYAN  LATHROP, 
JOHN  H.  LONG, 
AUGUSTUS  NEWELL, 
FRED.  BAUMANN, 
W.  J.  CHALMERS, 

CommUtec. 
Chicago,  May  20,   1889. 


Notes  by  the  Expert  Examiner. 


A  fireman  who  understands  his  business,  and  has  a 
good  grade  of  coal,  can  prevent  a  great  amount  of  smoke  if  the 
details  of  his  steam  plant  are  proper ;  in  many  cases  the  boiler 
capacit)^  is  entirely  inadequate  to  the  demands  upon  it,  and  the  fires 
have  to  be  crowded  to  the  utmost  ;  smoke  of  the  blackest  kind  is 
thus  commonly  evolved,  without  accomplishing  the  object.  In 
numerous  other  cases  the  chimney  capacity  is  entirely  too  small  for 
the  number  of  boilers  attached  to  it ;  sometimes  two,  three,  or  even 
four  boilers  are  dependent  upon  a  small  chipmey,  projecting  but  a 
few  feet  above  the  roof  of  the  building,  and  often  surrounded  by 
others  much  higher  ;  the  draft  is,  in  such  cases,  impeded,  and  much 
unneccessarj'  smoke  the  consequence;  a  "smoke  burner"  of  the 
proper  pattern  will  assist  materially  in  increasing  the  draft.  The 
majority  of  the  smoke  preventing  devices  are  of  but  little  benefit,  and 
in  some  cases  have  been  of  positive  injury  to  the  boilers  ;  and  even 
where  the  better  style  are  in  use,  carelessness  in  firing,  the  use  of  an 
inferior  grade  of  coal,  or  the  sudden  or  habitual  "  crowding  "  of  the 
fires,  one  or  all  together,  cause  much  smoke  at  times,  or  at  all 
times  ;  of  course,  an  apparatus  will  not  prevent  smoke,  if  not 
applied,  or  improperly  handled.  One  of  the  first  conditions  for 
success  is  "don't  crowd  the  boilers" — to  use  the  common  ex- 
pression. 

In  some  establishments  in  the  business  district  the  engineer 
has  to  do  duty  as  stoker, — do  his  own  firing  ;  he  has  also  charge  of 
the  elevator,  and  the  steam-heating,  and  of  other  business  ;  if  any- 
thing occurs  in  any  part  of  the  building  he  is  sent  for  to"  fix  things  :" 
leaving  his  post  to  go  to  the  top  story,  perhaps,  without  knowing 
when  he  shall  return,  he  crowds  his  furnace  full  of  coal,  with 
the  result  of  sending  a  dense  volume  of  smoke  out  of  the  chimney. 

These  observations  show  that  there  are  many  instances  where 
good  apparatus  does  not  prevent  smoke,  while  the  same  device 
works  perfectly  in  other  cases.  The  causes  are  verj-  evident : 
inadequate  chimney  capacit}',  inferior  coal,  imperfect  and  faulty 
setting  of  the  boiler,  or  careless  management  of  fires:  here  again 


there  is  evidence  that  unless  all  details  are  properly  arranged,  and 
the  fires  carefullj'^  attended  to. — in  short,  unless  there  is  careful  and 
judicious  management  of  the  whole  plant,  smoke  will  be  apparent. 
There  were  expressions,  in  some  cases,  of  ill-feeling  with  regard  to 
the  prosecutions  by  the  city  authorities,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
infliction  of  a  fine  has  often,  confessedly,  done  good. 

Every  tug,  and  nearly  every  locomotive  engine  observed, 
was  belching  forth  great  volumes  of  intensely  black  smoke ;  the 
exceptions  were  on  the  Illinois  Central  suburban  trains  :  on  inquiry 
it  was  found  that  this  Company  uses  bituminous  coal ;  but  the 
nuisance  was,  in  their  case,  much  less  than  on  other  locomotives, 
owing  to  careful  firing.  A  number  of  tugs  have  steam  jets  in  their 
smoke-stacks,  which  helps  to  some  extent  :  that  careful  firing  is  the 
best  remedy  was  demonstrated  on  the  trips  made,  the  same  tugs 
were  very  offensive  before  and  after  the  trips.  The  difficulties  to  be 
overcome  on  tugs  and  locomotives  are  greater  than  in  the  case  of 
stationary  boilers. 


May  17.  Trip  on  engine  No.  93,  Wisconsin  Central  Railwaj', 
— accompanied  b}'  the  inventor  of  the  device  attached  thereto,  W.  C. 
Thayer. 

The  trip  from  Chicago  to  Harlem  and  return  was  made 
without  any  visible  smoke  issuing  from  the  stack  of  the  engine, 
except  once,  when  upon  the  suggestion  of  your  examiner,  the 
valves  leading  to  the  consumer  were  closed,  whereupon  dense 
volumes  of  black  smoke  instantl}-  issued  from  the  stack,  to  be  just 
as  quickly  dispelled  bj'  again  opening  the  steam  valves.  Observa- 
tions were  made  on  the  following  day,  and  another  trip  was  made  as 
a  passenger,  unknown  to  anybody,  to  see  if  the  device  would  show 
equally  good  results,  and  it  was  found  to  work  just  as  perfectly,  as 
when  the  writer  rode  on  the  engine.  There  seems  to  be  no  further 
excuse  for  so  much  black  smoke  from  locomotive  engines  in  the 
city  of  Chicago,  while  there  is  such  a  simple,  inexpensive  and 
efficient  device  within  the  reach  of  all,  and  it  would  seem  that  the 
adoption  of  this  cannot  be  urged  any  too  strongly,  especially  as  a 
considerable  saving  of  fuel  is  said  to  be  effected  by  its  use.  The 
same  device  is  suited  to  tug  furnaces. 


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—37- 


REPORT  ' 


ON  THE 


NORTH-WEST 


Water  Tunnel. 


CITIZENS'  ASSOCIATION 


OF 


CHICAGO. 


1897 


0FFICERS-1897» 


R.   J.    SMITH,   President. 

R.   E.   JENKINS,   Vice-President. 

J.   C.   AMBLER,  Secretary. 


EXECUTIVE   COMMITTEE. 


R.   J.   Smith, 
R.   E.   Jenkins, 
JosiAH  L.   Lombard, 
Melville  E.   Stone, 
MuRRY  Nelson, 
Francis  B.   Peabody, 
E.   Fletcher  Ingals, 


W.   J.   Chalmers, 
J.   Harley  Bradley, 
Willis  G.   Jackson, 
Wm.   a.   Fuller, 
Bryan  Lathrop, 
Julius  Stern, 
Christoph  Hotz, 


H.   H.  Kohlsaat. 


ROOMS  33  MERCHANTS'  BUILDING. 


Office  Hours 


9   a.  m.  to   5    P.  M. 


TELEPHONE,   MAIN    1313. 


CITIZENS'  ASSOCIATION  OF  CHICAGO. 


The  TUNNEL  SYSTEM  subjected  to  examination  by  Messrs.  S.  S. 
Greeley  and  Geo.  C.  Prussing,  at  the  request  of  the  Citizens'  Asso- 
ciation of  Chicago,  consists  of  a  main  10-foot  tunnel  from  the 
eastern  end  of  Oak  street  west  to  North  Green  street  near  Grand 
avenue;  thence  it  is  separated  into  two  8-foot  tunnels  running 
northwesterly  and  southwesterly  respectively.  The  10-foot  tunnel 
is  to  be  continued  under  the  lake  for  two  to  two  and  a  half  miles. 

A  proposition  has  been  made  to  extend  the  lake  tunnel  four 
miles  from  shore  and  to  divide  the  10-foot  tunnel  from  its  present 
eastern  end  into  two  separate  8-foot  tunnels,  under  the  pretext  that 
such  division  will  lessen  the  danger  from  quicksand  pockets  and 
other  obstacles  which  might  be  encountered. 


Apiul  20,  1897. 

The  Executive  Committee  in  submitting  to  the  members  of  the 
Association  and  the  Public  the  reports  of  the  experts  employed  in" 
the  investigation  of  the  water  tunnels  now  under  construction,  calls 
attention  to  the  manifest  violation  of  the  terms  of  the  contracts  in 
the  payments  for  the  work,  which  appears  to  have  no  better  excuse 
than  a  subsequent  interpretation  of  the  contracts,  or  a  verbal  agree- 
ment without  consideration  between  the  city  officials  and  the  con- 
tractors. 


Some  of  the  defects  in  the  work  are  as  follows: 

Section  1.  Falls  somewhat  short  of  the  prescribed  height  and 
width  in  part  of  its  length,  but  on  the  whole  may  be  considered 
fairly  good. 

SectioD  2.  Part  of  the  brickwork  is  irregular  and  in  bad  shapes 
in  consequence  of  damage  by  blasting,  which  rendered  reconstruc- 
tion necessary.  There  are  irregularities  of  contour,  and  the  work- 
manship is  poor.  It  is  inferior  on  the  whole  to  the  other  sections, 
and  lacks  about  2  inches  of  the  height  provided  for  in  the  contract. 
In  one  section  of  800  feet  the  height  is  1  foot  less  and  the  width  8 
inches  less,  a  very  gross  fault. 

The  refuse  mortar  has  not  been  scraped  off;  many  of  the  brick 
used  are  not  up  to  the  requirements  of  the  specifications,  nor  are 
they  clean  and  thoroughly  wet  before  being  laid.  The  compressed 
air  apparatus  was  not  provided  as  stipulated.  Tlie  use  of  explosives 
has  been  allowed  in  other  places  than  where  rock  was  excavated. 


Section  1.  Payments  have  been  made  for  843,650  feet  of  board 
measure  timber  at  $10— $8,436.50,  although  the  contract  stipulates 
that  the  spaces  called  "back  filling"  for  which  this  timber  (slabs)  was 
used  shall  be  of  solid  masonry  and  no  allowance  made  for  such  work 
and  material;  1,577  cubic  yards  of  masonry  were  also  paid  for— 
$15,770. 

Section  2.  908,467  feet  of  such  timber  or  slabs  paid  for  in  the 
same  way— $9,084.67  and  2,942.48  cubic  yards  of  masonry  at  $10 
—$29,424.80. 

Section  4.  332,500  feet  of  such  timber  or  slabs  paid  for— $3,325 
and  308  cubic  yards  extra  brick,  $3,080. 

Here  are  $69,120.97  paid  out  to  contractors  not  only  in  contra- 
vention of  their  contracts,  but  in  plain  defiance  of  the  opinion  of  the 
Supreme  Court  in  the  case  of  the  City  of  Chicago  vs.  Weir,  Mc- 
Kechney  &  Co.,  one  of  the  contracting  firms,  handed  down  prior  to 
the  payment  so  made.     See  opinion,  page  27. 


Section  1.  1,270.4  cubic  yards  of  rock  in  earth  are  paid  for — 
$7,622.40  altliougli  the  contract  provides  that  "  no  extra  allowance 
will  be  made  for  quicksand,  hard  pan  or  bowlders."  The  excuse  for 
this  payment  is  that  the  City  Engineer  was  pleased  to  call  it  "  con- 
glomerate "  and  class  it  with  rock. 

Sections  1  and  4.  "  The  contractors  are  allowed  full  payment  for 
four  rings  of  brick,  while  only  three  were  built.  The  contract  pro- 
vides that  in  such  a  case  "  the  contractor  shall  sustain  a  reduction  in 
the  amount  of  his  contract." 

The  letter  of  the  City  Engineer  explaining  some  of  these  items 
does  not  explain  them  at  all;  it  merely  admits  that  they  exist.  If 
such  verbal  agreements  or  understandings  as  he  quotes  are  to  be 
recognized  in  payments  made  under  contracts,  or  if  a  meaning  is 
to  be  interpreted  into  the  contract  which  was  not  understood  when 
the  bids  were  made,  then  there  is  very  little  use  having  contracts 
at  all.  The  practice  inevitably  leads  to  a  system  whereby  the  profit 
in  a  contract  is  in  the  extra  allowances,  and  induces  dishonest 
men  to  undertake  work  at  low  figures  with  the  design  of  shutting 
out  others  who  are  responsible  as  well  in  character  as  in  financial 
ability. 

During  the  course  of  this  investigation  the  question  of  changing 
the  10-foot  tunnel  at  a  certain  point  into  two  8 -foot  tunnels  has 
arisen.  It  seems  to  us  obvious  that  the  danger  of  encountering 
quicksand  pockets  and  the  like  is  much  greater  in  the  projection  of 
two  separated  8-foot  tunnels  than  in  one  10-foot  tunnel. 

Our  experts  are  of  the  opinion  that  the  extension  of  any  tunnel 
beyond  the  two  and  a  half  mile  limit  is  useless,  since  the  comple- 
tion of  the  Drainage  Canal  in  conjunction  with  intercepting  sewers 
will  obviate  the  necessity  of  going  beyond  that  limit  in  order  to 
obtain  an  uncontaminated  water  supply. 

The  Executive  Committee  of  the  Citizens^  Association  of  Chicago. 

E.  J.  SMITH, 

J.  C.  Ambler,  President. 

Secretary. 


6 

Chicago,  March  12,  1897. 

To  THE  Executive  Committee  of  the  Citizens'  Association  of 
Chicago, 

Gentlemen: — In  compliance  with  your  request  we  have  examined 
in  detail,  so  far  as  could  be  done  by  inspection  of  the  interior 
surface,  the  whole  length  of  the  new  water  tunnels  now  in  process 
of  construction.  Our  inspection  was  made  on  the  1st  and  2d  days 
of  the  present  month.  Every  facility  was  afforded  us  for  our 
inspection  by  the  Commissioner  of  Public  Works,  by  the  City 
Engineers  in  charge  of  the  work,  and  by  the  Contractors;  and  the 
Engineers  of  the  several  sections  accompanied  us  as  guides,  and  to 
give  all  desired  information. 

The  system  of  tunnels  is  divided  into  four  sections,  thus  de- 
scribed in  the  specifications  forming  part  of  the  contracts  under 
which  the  work  is  being  done: 

^^  Section  1.  From  the  beginning  at  Green  Bay  Park  near  the  intersection  of 
Cass  and  Rush  streets  to  North  Green  street  near  Grand  avenue,  clear  width  shall 
be  10  feet;  clear  height  10  feet  2  inches." 

"  Section  2.  From  shaft  at  west  end  of  the  10-foot  tunnel  to  the  terminus  west 
of  Rockwell  street,  clear  width  8  feet;  clear  height  8  feet  2  inches."  (The  direction 
of  this  section  is  southwesterly  from  the  shaft  at  North  Green  street.) 

^'Section  3.  From  the  intersection  of  the  10  and  8-foot  tunnels  on  North 
Green  street  to  a  point  in  Sec.  35,  T.  40  N.  R.  13  E.  of  3d  P,  M.  clear  width  8  feet, 
clear  height  8  feet  2  inches."  (The  direction  of  this  section  is  northwesterly  from 
the  shaft  at  North  Green  street.) 

"  Section  4.  Lake  Water  Tunnel  from  a  shaft  to  be  located  on  the  Lake  Front, 
near  foot  of  Oak  street  to  a  point  in  Lake  Michigan  about  two  and  one  half  miles 
from  shore,  and  southwesterly  to  connect  with  the  land  tunnel  now  being  con- 
structed."    Clear  width  to  be  10  feet;  clear  height  10  feet  2  inches. 

Sections  1,  2,  .7  are  being  constructed  under  one  and  the  same  set  of  specifica- 
tions. 

Section  4  is  being  constructed  under  a  separate  set  of  specifications,  which  are 
similar  in  most  important  particulars  to  the  specifications  for  Sections  1,  2  and  3. 
The  10-foot  tunnels  are  to  be  lined  with  bricks  in  four  rings,  or  about  18  inches 


in  thickness;  the  8-foot  tunnels  are  to  be  lined   with    brick  masonry  in  three  rings 
or  about  IS  inches  inches  in  thickness. 

The  contractors  for  Section  1  are  FitzSimons  &  Connell. 

"     contractor      "         "       2  is  Joseph  J.  Dulfy. 

"    contractors     "         "       3  are  Weir,  McKechney  &  Co. 

"  «  "         "       4    "    FitzSimons  S:.  Connell. 

Specifications  for  brick:  "All  brick  used  in  the  work  shall  be  firstclass  sewer 
brick,  made  of  well  tempered  and  puddled  clay,  free  from  lime  and  pebbles.  They 
shall  be  hard  burued,  clear  ringing,  and  well  formed.  The  size  shall  be  uniform, 
viz.:  8  inch  x  4  inch  x  2]o  inch,  and  they  will  be  carefully  inspected  by  the  City^ 
and  immediately  rejected  if  not  up  to  the  standard  required." 

"In   addition  to  the  above   provisions  the  specifications  for  Section  4  or  Lake 
Water  Tunnel    provide   that  bricks,   which  after    being    thoroughly  dried,  and 
immersed  in  water  for  24  hours,  absorb  more  than  14  per  cent,  in  weight  of  water 
may  be  rejected." 

"The  bricks  must  be  clean  and  thoroughly  wet  before  being  laid.  All  refuse 
mortar  to  be  scraped  off,  and  with  rubbish  of  every  description  removed  daily  from 
the  tunnel." 

Specification  for  mortar:  "  All  cement  shall  be  of  the  best  quality  of  American 
natural  cement,  with  a  tensile  strength  of  the  neat  material  of  not  less  than  90 
pounds  per  square  inch  after  7  days,  and  not  less  than  140  pounds  per  square  inch 
after  28  days  immersion  in  the  water.  No  cement  shall  be  used  in  the  work  until 
it  has  been  tested  and  accepted  by  the  City  Engineer,  and  the  contractor  must 
furnish  storage  capacity,  and  must  keep  at  least  one  month's  supply  on  the 
ground  at  all  times.  All  mortar  shall  be  made  with  one  part  cement  and  one  part 
clean  sharp  beach  sand  from  the  lake  shore,  or  such  sand  as  shall  be  acceptable 
to  the  Commissioner  of  Public  Works.  (Dredged  sand  will  not  be  allowed  on  the 
work.)" 

CONSTRUCTION. 

"The  contractor  must  provide  a  complete  plant  for  the  introduction  of  com- 
pressed air  to  guard  against  danger  or  damage  in  the  prosecution  of  the  work,  and 
to  support  the  roof  of  the  tunnel." 

"  The  contractor  must  take  the  work  entirely  at  his  own  risk.  No  extra 
allowance  will  be  made  for  quicksand,  hard  pan  or  bowlders.  When  the  tunnel 
is  in  rock  the  brick  lining  may,  if  deemed  secure  by  the  City  Engineer,  be  reduced 
one  ring  less  of  brick,  and  in  all  instances  the  masonry  shall  be  brought  to  a  true 
circular  section." 

"  In  every  instance  all  spaces  left  between  the  outside  of  the  regular  brick 
work  and  the  excavation  sliall  be  filled  in  with  solid  brick  masonry,  but  no 
allowance  will  be  made  for  such  additional  work  and  material." 

"The  Commissioner  of  Public  Works  reserves  the  right  to  make  any  changes 
in  the  foregoing  plans  and  specifications  that  he  may  deem  desirable  or  necessary. 


8 

or  the  emergency  of  the  work  may  demand,  and  the  contractor  shall  furnish  any 
additional  material  and  do  any  additional  work  required  by  such  changes  or 
emergency  at  the  prices  for  like  work  stipulated  in  the  contract." 

"  If  any  change  which  the  Commissioner  of  Public  Works  shall  deem  necessary 
in  the  foregoing  plans  and  specifications  shall  lessen  the  amount  of  material 
required,  then  the  contractor  shall  sustain  such  a  reduction  in  the  amount  of  his 
contract  as  above  provided." 

"  The  contractor  will  receive  pay  for  the  amount  of  work  actually  done,  and 
shall  not  be  paid  for  constructive  loss  for  that  which  may  be  omitted." 

The  above  extracts  are  taken  from  the  printed  specifications  for 
the  work,  which  were  furnished  us  by  the  Commissioner  and  the 
Engineer. 


On  the  morning  of  March  1st  we  were  met  by  appointment  at  the 
Hoyne  street  shaft  by  Mr.  J.  Erickson,  Assistant  Engineer  in 
charge  of  Water  Tunnels  and  Mr.  C.  T.  Anderson,  Assistant 
Engineer  in  charge  of  Section  2.  Mr.  J.  J.  DufPy,  contractor  for 
Section  2,  also  joined  us.  We  all  were  lowered  in  the  cage  to  the 
tunnel,  about  100  feet  below  the  street  grade,  and  began  our  exami- 
nation at  this  point. 

At  the  west  side  of  the  shaft  the  tunnel  was  8  feet  wide  at  top  of 
invert  and  8  feet  high  in  center.  Thence  west  the  brickwork  had 
been  built  for  several  hundred  feet,  and  beyond  the  arch  excavation 
in  rock  had  been  done  for  200  or  300  feet.  This  part  of  the  brick- 
work was  irregular  and  in  bad  shape.  We  had  previously  been  ad- 
vised of  this  by  Commissioner  Downey,  who  explained  that  it  had 
been  seriously  damaged  by  blasting  and  had  been  condemned  to  be 
taken  down  and  rebuilt. 

Having  made  a  general  inspection  of  this  portion,  we  proceeded 
eastward  from  Hoyne  avenue  shaft  through  section  2,  measuring 
the  horizontal  and  vertical  inside  diameters  at  about  every  100  feet, 
as  nearly  as  practicable,  except  where  prevented  by  the  flooring  or 
by  plank  and  other  materials  piled  along  the  side. 

The  following  is  a  table  of  these  diameters  : 


9 


station.  Widtli.  Height. 

E.  side  Hoyne 

ave.  shaft 7-ft,  4-in.        7-ft. 

100-ft.  E  . .  .  7-ft.  4-in.        7-ft. 

450-ft 7-ft. 

550-ft 7-ft.  5-in.         7-ft. 

800-ft 7-ft.  5-in.        7-ft.  2i^-in. 

810-ft 8-ft.  >^-in.       7-ft.  11-in. 

1000-ft 8-ft.  8-ft.  1-in. 

1100- ft 8-ft.  1^-in 

1200-ft 7-ft.  11-in. 

1300-ft 8-ft. 

1400-ft 8-ft.  i^-in. 

1500-ft 8-ft.  1-in.        8ft. 

1600-ft 7-ft.  ll)^-in.  8-ft. 

1700-ft 8-ft.  }i-in.       8-ft. 

1800- ft 8-ft.  8-ft. 

1900-ft 8-ft.  14-in.       8-ft. 

2000-ft 8-ft.  i-in.         8-ft. 

2100-f t 8-ft.  %-in.       7-f t.l  1  i^-in. 

2200- ft 8-ft.  8-ft.  %-m. 

2300-ft 8-ft.  J^-in.       8-ft.  2M-in. 

2400  ft 8-ft.  8-ft.    %-m. 

2450  ft 8-ft.  3-in. 

Sides  of  tunnel  are  wet.  The  Engi- 
neer says  there  are  sand  pockets  behind 
them. 

8-ft.  >^-in. 
7-ft.  lli^-in. 
8-ft.  1-in. 
8-ft.  %-in. 
8-ft.  Sg-ia- 
8-ft.  M-in. 


2-in. 
4-in. 
l>^-in. 
2-in. 


8-lt.  1-in. 
7-ft.  11-in. 
8-ft.    >^-in. 
7-ft.ll3^-in. 

!^-in. 

i^-in. 

M-in. 


S^-in. 


2500-ft.  E. 
2600- ft... 
2700-ft... 
2800-ft... 
2900-ft... 
3000-ft . . . 
3100-ft . . . 
3200-ft... 
3300- ft... 
3400-f t . . . 
3500-ft... 
3600-ft... 
3700-ft... 
Station 


8-ft. 

8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
3,758  E. 


1-in. 

'8 -in. 

l^g-in. 

2-in. 

IJs-in. 

^-in. 


8-ft.    J)^-in. 
8-ft.  1-in. 
8-ft.  2i.^in. 
8-ft.  2>|-in. 
8-ft.  2-in. 
8-ft.  2J^-in. 
8-ft.  2-in. 
8-ft.  1-in. 
8-ft.  2-in. 
8-ft.  1-in. 
8-ft.  21^-in. 
8-ft.  1%-in. 
8-ft.  li^-in. 


of    Hovne    avenue 


shaft  is  station  2,626  W.  of  Carroll  ave- 
nue. 
Station  W.  of 

Carroll  ave. 

2600-ft.  W...  7-ft.  lli^-in. 

2500-ft 8-ft.  Sg-in. 

2400-ft 8-ft.  )4-in. 

2300-ft 8-ft.  )^-in. 

2200-ft 8-ft.  14-in. 

2000-ft 8-ft.  3;i-in. 

1900-ft 7-ft.  11-iu. 


8-ft. 

8-ft. 

34-in. 

8-ft. 

x^8-in- 

8-ft. 

2=*8-in 

8-ft. 

■5g-in. 

8-ft. 

i.<-in. 

8-ft. 

2-in. 

Station. 

Station  W. 
Carroll  ave. 
1700-ft.  W.. 

1600-ft 

1.500- ft 

1400-ft 

1300-ft 

1200  ft 

1100- ft 

1000-ft 

900-ft 

800-ft 

700-ft 

600-ft 

500- ft 

400-ft 

300-ft 

200-ft 

100-ft 

W.  side  Carroll 
ave.  shaft 

E.  from  Carroll 
ave.  shaft  at 
E.  side 

100-ft.  E.. 

200-ft 

300-ft 

400-ft 

500  ft 

GOO-ft 

800-ft 

■   900-ft 

1000-ft 

1100-ft..... 

1200-ft 

1300-ft 

1400-ft 

1500-ft 

1600-ft 

1800-ft 

1900-ft 

2000-ft 

2100-ft 

2200-ft 

2300-ft 

2400-ft 

2500-ft 

2700-ft 

W.  side  C  reeu 
St.  shaft  E.end 
of  Section  3 . . . 


M-in- 


Width. 

8-ft. 

8-ft.  1-in. 
8-ft.  M-in- 
7-ft.  ll^-in- 
8-ft. 
8-ft.  _ 
8-ft.  i^-in. 
8-ft.  M-in- 
8-ft.  M-in. 
7-ft.  11-in. 
8-ft. 

8-ft.  1^-in. 
8-ft.  1-in. 
8-ft. 

8-ft.  %-ia. 
8-ft.  %-\n. 
8-ft.  2-in. 


Height. 


8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 


IK-in- 
13^-in. 

^-in. 

%-in. 

1-in. 

J^-in. 

4>i-in. 


IJ^-in. 

IM-iQ- 
2%-\n. 

ISg-in. 

IM-in. 


8-ft.  1-in.        8-ft.  l^g-in- 


8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
7-ft. 
7-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
7-ft. 
8-ft. 
7-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
8-ft. 
7-ft. 
8-ft. 
7-ft. 


1-in. 


i^-in. 

M-in. 

,^8-in- 
ll?8-in. 
11%  in. 
3^-in. 

M-in. 

1-in. 

J^-in. 

5.8-in. 

11^8 -in. 

Sg-in. 

%-ui. 

3^-in. 

3^-in. 

%-in. 

1138-in. 

M-in. 

11^-in. 


%-m. 


8-ft.  ISg'-in. 

7-ft.lli8-in. 
8-ft.  2i4-in. 
8-ft.  2}^-in. 
8-ft.  2^-in. 
8-ft.  114-in. 
8-ft.  lig-in- 
8-ft.  ^-in. 
8-ft. 

7-ft.ll38-in. 
8-ft.  21^-in 
8-ft.    "     " 
8-ft.  1-in. 
8-ft. 

8-ft.  1-in. 
8-ft. 

8-ft.  ^-in. 
8-ft.  i^-in. 
8-ft.  2i|-in. 
8-ft.  Sg-in. 
8-ft.  ii^-in. 
8-ft.  3^-in. 
8-ft.  1^-in. 
7-ft.ll34-in. 
8-ft. 


8-ft.  M-in.       8-ft.  ^s'-in- 


The  above  table  shows  that  from  Hoyne  avenue  shaft  east  for  800 
feet  the  inside  of  the  tunnel  is  only  about  7  feet  4  inches  wide  and 


about  7  feet  2  inches  high. 


10 

The  following  letter  from  Mr.  Joseph  Downey,  Commissioner  of 
Public  Works,  gives  the  reason  and  states  the  effect  which  it  is  sup- 
posed this  diminution  of  size  will  have  on  the  flow  of  water  through 

the  tunnel.     It  seems  to  cover  the  case  fully  : 

March  3,  1897. 
"  Messrs.  George  C.  Prtjssing  and  S.  S.  Greeley, 

822  Chicago  Opera  House  Block,  Chicago. 

'■'■Gentlemen: — Referring  to  yours  of  the  2d  inst.  with  reference  to  the  new  water 
tunnels  now  being  constructed  by  the  city  of  Chicago,  and  which  you  as  a  com- 
mittee representing  the  Citizens'  Association  have  been  inspecting,  I  beg  leave  to 
state  that  soon  after  entering  upon  my  duties  as  Commissioner  of  Public  Works  I 
made  an  inspection  of  the  new  tunnel  work,  and  on  this  tour  of  inspection  I  found 
places  where  the  workmanship  appeared  to  be  unsatisfactory.  I  caused  a  number 
of  holes  to  be  cut  through  the  brickwork  of  the  tunnel.  This  revealed  the  fact 
that  on  Section  2  for  a  distance  of  about  800  feet  east  of  Hoyne  avenue  shaft, 
although  the  lining  showed  the  required  three  rings  of  brick,  there  was  an  insuf- 
ficiency of  mortar.  I  was  informed  by  the  engineers  in  charge  of  the  work  that 
this  stretch  of  tunnel  had  been  constructed  through  a  soil  abounding  in  water- 
bearing quicksand  pockets,  causing  a  continuous  inflow  of  water,  which  washed 
the  mortar  from  between  the  bricks  as  soon  as  laid. 

"  To  tear  out  this  part  of  the  tunnel  and  reconstruct  it  would  be  rather  risky  un- 
der the  circumstances,  and  I  therefore  concluded  that  to  line  that  part  of  the 
tunnel  with  an  extra  ring  of  brick  laid  in  Portland  cement,  after  investigating  the 
effect  of  such  a  reduction  of  area,  would  be  the  best  mode  of  remedying  this  de- 
fect, and  I  so  ordered. 

"  The  total  friction  head  at  the  proposed  pumping  station  when  pumping  80,000,- 
000  gallons  per  24  hours,  or  the  maximum  capacity,  if  the  main  tunnel  has  a 
diameter  of  10  feet  and  the  branch  tunnel  has  a  diameter  of  8  feet,  is  19.31 
feet,  or,  allowing  6  feet  for  fluctuations  in  the  lake,  25.31  feet. 

"  If  the  main  tunnel  is  10  feet  and  the  branch  tunnel  is  8  feet,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  800  feet  which  has  been  reduced  to  73^  feet  diameter,  the  total  friction 
head  when  pumping  80,000,000  gallons  per  day  is  19.48  feet,  and,  allowing  6  feet 
for  fluctuations,  25.48  feet,  or  ah  excess  of  25.48  feet— 25.31,  or  only  0.17  feet — 
which,  compared  with  the  total  head,  is  comparatively  nothing. 

"  Had  the  whole  length  of  the  branch  tunnel  been  reduced  to  7)^  feet  diameter 
the  head  would  be  30.51  feet. 

"  Trusting  this  explanation  is  satisfactory,  I  am,  yours  very  truly, 

Joseph  Downey, 
Commissioner  of  Public  Works." 

Throughout  the  whole  length  of  Section  2  the  water  stood  from 
6  inches  to  16  inches  deep.  Most  of  it  probably  came  from 
the  rock  excavation  just  west  of  the  Hoyne  avenue  shaft. 

There  are  in  some  places  irregularities  of  contour,  though  most 
of  it  is  practically  cylindrical. 


11 


The  courses  of  brick  are  irregular,  sliowiug  poor  workmansliip. 
As  a  whole  the  work  on  section  2  seems  inferior  to  that  on  the  other 
sections. 

The  engineers  and  the  contractor  concur  in  stating  that  great 
difticulty  was  met  in  bad  ground,  with  frequent  and  extensive 
pockets  of  sand,  loam  and  water. 

We  believe  that  this  section  would  have  been  better  built  had  the 
specifications  been  carefully  followed,  in  the  selection  of  brick,  in 
"laying  them  fair  and  smooth  to  line,  and  to  a  true  and  cylindrical 
form,"  and  especially  if  the  contractor  had  "provided  a  complete 
plant  for  the  use  of  compressad  air,"  as  required  by  his  contract. 

For  most  of  its  length  the  width  of  the  tunnel  is  8  feet,  or  a  little 
over  ;  only  a  small  part  of  it  is  8  feet  2  inches  high,  lacking  gen- 
erally about  2  inches  of  the  proper  height. 

At  the  Green  street  shaft,  the  east  end  of  Section  2,  Messrs.  Erick- 
son  and  Anderson,  engineers,  and  Mr.  Duffy,  contractor  for  Section 
2,  left  us,  and  we  proceeded  easterly  on  Section  1,  in  company  with 
Mi'.  J.  H.  Spangler,  engineer,  and  a  superintendent  in  charge  for 
Messrs.  FitzSimons  &  Connell,  contractors. 

The  followinof  table  shows  the  horizontal  and  vertical  inside 
diameters: 

Table  of  Inside  Diameters  on  Section  2. 


Widtli. 


Height. 


Station. 
W.  from 
Kingsburv 
E.  side  of' 
Green  st. 

shaft 

2100  ft.  W. 

of  K 10-ft.                   10-ft. 

2000-ft. . . .  9-ft.  113^-in.  10-ft. 

1900-ft 10-ft.                  10-ft. 

1800-ft 10-ft.      i^-in.  10-ft. 

1700-ft 10-ft.                  10-ft. 

1600-ft 9-ft.  1114-iu.  10-ft. 

1500-ft 9-ft.  11-iu.      10  ft. 

1400-ft 9  ft.  11-in.      10-ft. 

1300-ft 9-ft.  1 1 3^-in.  10-ft.    2-in. 

1200-ft 9-ft.  1114-in.  10-ft.    1  in. 

1100-ft 9-ft.  lia^'-in.  10-ft. 

1000-ft 9-ft.  lO-^-in.  10-ft. 

900-ft 9-ft.  lOig'-in.  10-ft. 

800-ft 9-ft.  1114-in.  10-ft. 

600-ft 10-ft. 

400-ft 10-ft.    1-iQ. 


10-ft.    1-in       10-ft.    1-in. 


2-m. 
1-in. 


3^-in. 
li^-in. 

IH-in- 
2-in. 


1-in. 
1-in. 
1-in. 


Width. 


Height. 


Station. 

E.  from 

KinfiSbiirvst. 

75-ft.  E.  .  10-ft.                  A  tight  plank 

200-f t 9-f  t.  1 1 84 -in.  fl  o  o  r     and 

400-ft 10-ft.    fio-in.  tracks  pre- 


800-ft. . . 

. .   10-ft. 

1-in. 

vented  m 

1000-ft. . . 

..   10-ft. 

uremeut 

1200-ft. . . 

. .   10-ft. 

height. 

1500-ft. . . 

. .   10-ft. 

i4-m. 

1800-ft. . . 

..   10-ft. 

%-m. 

2000-ft. . . 

. .   10-ft. 

2200-ft. . . 

..    10-ft. 

K-in. 

2400-ft. . . 

..   10-ft. 

1-in. 

2600-ft. . . 

..   10-ft. 

i^-in. 

2800-ft. . . 

..  10-ft. 

8000- ft... 

. .   10-ft. 

^-in. 

3200-ft. . . 

. .   10-ft. 

3100-ft. . . 

..   10-ft. 

M-in. 

of 


East  end  of  drift. 


12 

Portions  of  that  part  west  of  Kingsbury  street  shaft  fall  some- 
what short  of  the  prescribed  width  and  height.  Evidently  greater 
care  has  been  taken  in  construction  and  better  mechanics  employed 
than  on  Section  2.  We  were  so  well  satisfied,  from  the  regularity 
of  contour  of  the  tunnel,  that  the  height  is  as  called  for,  that  we 
did  not  take  up  the  floor  where  laid,  so  as  to  measure  the  height. 
At  the  east  end  of  the  drift,  Avhere  the  thickness  of  the  arch  could 
be  seen,  we  found  it  to  be  four  rings  thick,  and  properly  laid. 

In  the  afternoon  of  March  1st,  guided  by  Mr.  Spangler,  engineer 
in  charge,  we  examined  the  two  pieces  of  tunnel  now  built  on  Sec- 
tion 3 — one  at  the  Potomac  avenue  shaft,  the  other  at  Keith  street 
shaft. 

Table  of  Inside  Diameters  on  Section  3. 


station. 


Width. 


E  from 

Potomac  av.  ^  . 

at  E.  side....  8-ft. 

100-ft.  E...  8-ft. 

E.  end  of  arch. 

W.  from 
Keitli 
St.  sliaft. 
W.  side  of 

sliaft 8-it. 

100-ft.  W..  8-ft. 

200-ft 8-ft. 

300-ft 8-ft. 

400-ft 8-ft. 

500-ft 8-ft. 

600-ft 8-ft. 

700-ft 8-ft. 

800-ft 8-ft. 


M-in. 


D. 

n. 

D. 

n. 
n. 
n. 
n. 
n. 
n. 


858-ft  is  W.  end  of  arch. 


Heiglit. 

Station. 
W.  from 
Potomac  av. 

Width. 

Height 

8-ft.    2-in. 

100-ft.W.. 

8-ft.  li^-in.    8-ft. 

li^-in. 

8-ft.    2-in. 

200-ft 

8-ft. 

W.  end  of  arch. 

E.from  Keitl 

I 

St.  shaft. 

E.side  of  sliaft  8-ft.  1-in. 

100-ft.  E 

.  8-ft.    i^-in. 

200-ft . . . 

8-ft.    %-\n. 

300-ft . . . 

8-ft.    i^-in. 

400-ft... 

8-ft.  l>^-in. 

500-ft... 

8-ft.    >^-in. 

600-ft... 

8-ft.    %-in. 

700-ft... 

8-ft.  1-in. 

800-ft... 

8-ft.    }i-\n. 

900ft... 

8-ft. 

1000-ft... 

8-ft.    %-\n. 

1100-ft... 

8-ft.    %-in. 

1180-ft... 

8-ft.    i^-in. 

We  found  nothing  specially  to  criticise  in  the  work  on  this 
section. 

On  the  morning  of  March  2d,  we  examined  Section  4,  or  the  Lake 
Water  Tunnel,  extending  easterly  and  westerly  from  the  shaft  in  the 
line,  extended,  of  Oak  street,  and  about  1,100  feet  east  of  Lake 
Shore  Drive.  We  were  accompanied  by  Mr.  Erickson,  Assistant 
Engineer,  and  Mi'.  Inness,  Superintendent  for  Messrs.  FitzSimons 
<fe  Connell,  the  contractors. 


13 


Table  of  Inside  Diameteks  on  Section  4. 


station.  Width.  Height. 

E.  side  shaft.  10-ft.      3^-in. 

100-ft.  E..  9-ft.  lli^-in. 

300-ft 9-ft.  ir^g.in. 

400-ft 10-ft. 

500-f t 9-ft.  lOi^-iu. 

600- ft 10-ft. 

700-ft 9-ft.  lli^-in. 

800- ft 10-ft. 

900-ft 10-ft. 

1000-ft 10-ft.    1-in. 

1 100-ft 10-ft. 

1200-ft 9-ft.  lli^-in. 

1300-ft 10-ft.      3^-in. 

1 400-ft 9-ft.  lis^g'-in. 

1500-ft 9-ft.  lli|-in. 

1600-ft 10-ft. 

1700-ft 10-ft.      i^-in. 

1800- ft 10-ft.      3^-in. 

1 900-ft 10-ft.      i^-in.  10-ft.     3-in. 

At  east  end  the  arch  is  three  rings  thick, 

laid  in  Portland  cement. 


station. 

Widtli. 

W.  sidesliaft. 

10-ft. 

lOO-ft.  W. 

9-ft.  lli^-in 

200-ft .... 

10-ft.      i^-in 

300-ft.... 

10-ft. 

600-ft.... 

10-ft.      i^-in 

700-ft.... 

10-ft.      ^-in 

800-ft.... 

9-ft.  ir'4-in 

1000-ft.... 

10-ft. 

1100-ft.... 

10-ft.      i^-in 

1200-ft.... 

10-ft.    1-in. 

1300-fl.... 

9-ft.  lli^-in 

1400-ft.... 

10-ft.      i^-in 

Height. 


At  west  end  the  arch  is  three  rings  thick, 
laid  in  Utica  cement. 


On  Section  4,  as  on  Section  1,  the  flooring  prevented  measuring 
the  heights  of  the  tunnel,  but  the  regularity  of  the  contour  led  us 
to  believe  that  it  was  practically  of  the  required  dimension. 

GENERAL  EEMARKS. 


From  our  examination  of  the  various  sections,  it  appears  that  in 
several  places  the  Commissioner  of  Public  Works  has  exercised 
his  right  under  the  contract  to  make  changes  in  plans  and  speci- 
fications. 

The  cement  mortar  in  the  work  appears  to  be  all  that  is  required. 
The  clause  of  the  specification  which  provides  that  one  month's  sup- 
ply of  cement  shall  be  kept  on  hand,  so  that  it  may  be  tested  in 
advance,  has  not  been  enforced.  The  refuse  mortar  has  not  been 
scraped  off,  and  while  most  of  the  brick  used  in  the  inner  ring  are 
"first  class  sewer  brick,"  there  are  some  in  all  the  sections  which 
are  not  up  to  the  requirements  of  the  specifications,  nor  are  they 
"  clean  and  thoroughly  wet  before  being  laid." 


In  closing  this  report,  we  desire  to  say  that  a  more  thorough 
inspection  of  work  and  materials,  and  a  closer  adherence  to  the  terms 
of  the  contracts  would  have  given  better  results.  8uch  results  can- 
not be  had  except  by  the  employment  of  expert  and  faitlifal  inspect- 
ors upon  the  work.  We  suggest  that  clauses  not  meant  to  be  enforced 
should  be  omitted  from  the  specifications. 

We  submit  herewith  copies  of  the  printed  specifications  forming 
part  of  the  contracts  for  constructing  the  several  sections. 

Eespectfully,  Samuel  S.  Greeley. 

Geo.  C.  Prussing. 


Chicago,  March  30,  1897. 

To  THE  Executive  Committee  of  the  Citizens'  Association  of 
Chicago, 

Gentlemen: — The  undersigned,  in  accordance  with  your  request 
to  examine  the  new  water  tunnels,  now  being  constructed  for  the 
City  of  Chicago,  together  with  the  contracts  and  specifications  for 
doing  the  work,  and  the  vouchers  for  money  paid  thereon,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  report  already  made,  desire  to  report  as  follows: 

The  specifications  for  Sections  1,  2  and  3  of  land  tunnel  provide 

as  follows: 

"  The  excavation  for  the  tunnel  when  through  firm  clay  shall  conform  exactly  to 
the  outside  of  the  masonry.  '  No  extra  allowance  will  be  made  for  quicksand, 
hard  pan  or  bowlders.'  " 

"  In  every  instance  all  spaces  left  between  the  outside  of  the  regular  brick-work 
and  the  excavation  shall  be  filled  in  with  solid  brick  masonry,  but  no  allowance 
will  be  made  for  such  additional  work  and  material." 

"  It  is  understood  and  agreed  that  no  claim  whatever  will  be  made  or  allowed 
for  extra  work  or  material  unless  some  changes  or  additions  to  the  work  herein 
specified  or  shown  on  the  drawings  requiring  additional  outlay  by  the  contractor 
shall  have  first  been  ordered  in  writing  by  the  Commissioner  of  Public  Works." 

"The  use  of  explosives  will  not  be  allowed  or  permitted  except  in  rock  excava- 
tion." 


15 

111  examining  the  estimate  vouchers,  in  the  office  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Public  Works,  for  the  total  amount  of  work  done  up  to  the 
respective  dates  of  such  vouchers,  we  find  the  following: 

In  voucher  dated  March  19,  1897,  to  the  FitzSimouB  &  Connell  Co.,  for  work 
upon  Section  1,  of  new  land  tunnel — 

683,470  feet,  board  measure,  timber at  $10.00  $  6,834.70 

1,281  cubic  yards  masonry "      10.00  12,610.00 

1(10,180  feet,  board  measure,  timber "      10.00  1,(501.80 

816  cubic  yards  masonry "      10.00  3,160.00 

Total  on  Section  1 $24,306.50 

And  in  voucher  dated  March  18,  1897,  issued  to  the  same  Company  on  Section 
4,  Northeast  Lake  Water  Tunnel  we  find  the  following: 

308  cubic  yards  extra  brick at  $10.00        $3,080.00 

332,500  feet,  board  measure,  slabs "     10.00  3,3i5.00 

$6,405.00 

And  in  voucher  dated  March  16,  1897,  issued  to  Joseph  J.  Duffy,  on  Section  2 
we  find: 

2,942.48  cubic  yards  masonry at  $10.00      $29,424.80 

908,467  feet,  board  measure,  lumber  left  in  tunnel. .  "      10.00  9,084.67 

$38,509.47 

Note:— They  get  $10  per  M.  feet,  board  measure,  for  slabs  in  place — slabs  in  the 
market  cost  about  $4  per  cord,  which  is  equal  to  1,500  feet,  board  measure. 
Although  this  is  cheaper  than  brick  at  $10  per  cubic  yard,  the  contract  calls  for 
brick  to  be  paid  for  by  the  contractor  and  at  no  cost  to  the  city. 

In  voucher  dated  March  19,  1897,  issued  to  FitzSimons  &  Connell  Co.,  on  Sec- 
tion 1,  of  land  tunnel,  we  find  the  following: 

1,270.4  cubic  yards  Rock  in  earth  excavation at  $6.00        $7,622.40 

We  find  that  on  Section  1,  of  the  land  tunnel,  and  on  Section  4,  Lake  tunnel, 
the  FitzSimons  &  Connell  Co.  have  been  allowed  the  uniform  contract  price,  of 
$18.00  per  lin.  foot,  on  the  Lake  tunnel,  four  rings  of  brick  thick,  while  only  three 
rings  are  being  actually  built." 

In  view  of  the  above  apparent  departure  from  the  specifications, 
both  as  to  payment  and  to  method  of  construction,  we  addressed  to 
Mr.  Joseph  Downey,  Commissioner  of  Public  Works,  a  letter  of 
inquiry,  a  copy  of  which  we  submit  herewith. 


16 

Chicago,  March  30,  1897. 
Joseph  Downey,  Esq.,  Commissioner  of  Public  Works, 

Dear  Sir: — In  an  examination  made  at  the  request  of  the  Citizens' 
Association  of  the  specifications  and  contracts  for  the  tunnels  now 
in  course  of  construction  for  the  City  of  Chicago,  by  the  FitzSimons 
&  Connell  Company,  by  Messrs.  Weir,  McKechney  &  Co.  and  by 
Mr.  Joseph  J.  Duffy,  and  of  the  various  vouchers  drawn  in  favor  of 
said  contractors  for  said  work,  we  find  a  number  of  items  for  extra 
work  done  and  materials  delivered  which  are  not  provided  for  by 
the  terms  of  the  contracts. 

The  specifications  provide  that,  "in  every  instance  all  spaces  left 
between  the  outside  of  the  regular  brickwork  and  the  excavation 
shall  be  filled  in  with  solid  brick  masonry,  but  no  allowance  will  be 
made  for  such  additional  work  and  material,"  and  "no  extra  allow- 
ance will  be  made  for  quicksand,  hard  pan  or  bowlders.' 


5) 


Among  the  allowances  for  extra  work  we  find  in  voucher  dated  March  19,  1897, 
to  the  FitzSimons  &  Connell  Co.,  for  work  done  upon  Section  l,new  land  tunnel, 
the  following: 

683,470  feet,  board  measure,  timber at  -f  10.00  $6,834.70 

1,261  cubic  yards  masonry "  10.00  12,610.00 

160,180  feet,  board  measure,  timber "  10.00  1,601.80 

316  cubic  yards  masonry "  10.00  3,160.00 

And  in  the  voucher  dated  March  18,  1897,  issued  to  the  same  on  Section  4, 
Northeast  tunnel,  we  find  the  following: 

308  cubic  yards  extra  brick at  $10.00  $3,080.00 

832,500  feet,  board  measure,  slabs "     10.00  3,325.00 

And  in  the  voucher  dated  March  16,  1897,  issued  to  Joseph  J.  Duffy,  in  Sec- 
tion 2,  new  land  tunnel,  we  find  the  following: 

2,942.48  cubic  yards  masonry at  $10.00        $29,424.80 

908,467    feet,   board     measure,    lumber    left    per- 
manently in  tunnel "      10.00  9,084.67 

We  found  ledges  of  rock  in  Sections  2  and  3.  Kindly  inform  us 
regarding  the  item  in  voucher,  dated  March  19,  1897,  to  FitzSimons 
&  Connell  Co.,  as  follows: 

1,270.4  cubic  yards  Rock  in  earth  excavation at  $6.00        $7,622.40 


17 

We  quote  from  specifications:  "  The  use  of  explosives  will  not 
be  allowed  or  permitted  except  in  rock  excavation." 

We  find  that  the  FitzSimons  &  Connell  Co.  have  been  allowed 
upon  vouchers  the  uniform  price  per  foot  of  tunnel  fixed  by  contract 
for  four  ring  work,  while  only  three  rings  are  being  put  in. 

The  specifications  provide  for  "the  use  of  air  locks  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  work. "     We  found  none  in  use. 

We  are  informed  that  a  suit  for  extras,  by  Messrs.  Weir,  McKech- 
ney  &  Co.  has  been  decided  by  the  Supreme  Court  in  favor  of  con- 
tractors. We  should  be  pleased  to  know  the  exact  claim  made  and 
would  thank  you  for  a  copy  of  decision,  if  obtainable. 

If  you  desire  to  make  any  explanations  to  the  Citizens'  Associa- 
tion regarding  these  apparent  differences,  we  shall  be  pleased  to 
incorporate  them  in  our  report. 

Very  respectfully, 

Samuel  S.  Greeley. 
Geo.  C.  Prussing. 


In  answer  to  the  above  letter  Mr.  Downey  has  sent  us  a  copy  of 
a  report  of  Mr.  L.  B.  Jackson,  City  Engineer,  on  this  subject, 
together  wath  a  copy  of  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Illinois,  iu 
the  case  of  the  City  of  Chicago  vs.  Weir,  et  al.  appeal  from  Appel- 
late Court,  First  District.     These  documents  we  submit  herewith. 

April,  2,  1897. 
Messrs.  S.  S.  Greeley  and  G.  C.  Prussing, 

Gentlemen: — In  accordance  with  your  request  of  March  30th,  I 
submit  the  following  copy  of  report  of  Mr.  L.  B.  Jackson,  City 
Engineer,  with  reference  to  water  tunnels  under  construction: 

"  In  reply  to  the  letter  to  you  from  Samuel  S.  Greeley  and  George  C.  Prussing, 
of  March  30th,  regarding  timber,  extra  masonry  and  rock  in  earth  excavation 
allowed  in  vouchers  for  new  tunnel  constructions,  I  beg  to  state — 

"First,  That  the  total  amount  of  work  done  since  the  commencement  of  the  work 
appears  in  each  estimate.  The  amounts  referred  to  by  them  are  therefore  the  total 
amounts  since  the  work  commenced. 


18 

"Second,  Regarding  allowance  for  timber,  I  would  call  attention  to  the  clause  in 
the  specifications  regarding  same,  as  follows:  'If  the  condition  of  the  soil  is  such 
that  in  the  judgment  of  the  City  Engineer  it  becomes  necessary  to  leave  perma- 
nently any  timbers  or  boards  used  in  supporting  the  soil  in  the  excavation,  the  con- 
tractor will  be  paid  for  such  lumber  at  the  rate  of  $10.00  per  thousand  feet  B.  M.' 
For  all  such  timber,  with  the  exception  of  the  crown  bars  and  sleepers  v^e  use  slabs 
as  the  excavation  can  be  filled  in  more  thoroughly  with  half  round  timber  than  with 
square  timber,  owing  to  the  shape  of  the  tunnel. 

"With  regard  to  allowance  for  back  masonry,  I  will  state  that  no  allowance  is 
made  for  extra  masonry  placed  outside  of  the  regular  specified  rings  in  the  tunnel 
except  where,  on  account  of  sand  pockets  or  other  loose  material,  large  caves  occur 
necessitating  the  placing  of  crown  bars  or  planks  to  properly  protect  the  work  and 
in  these  cases  only  such  material  as  is  directed  placed  in  the  roof  between  the 
regular  rings  of  the  tunnel  and  the  crown  bars  or  planks.  This  matter  was 
referred,  as  you  remember,  to  the  Corporation  Counsel,  and  it  was  agreed  among 
the  Corporation  Counsel,  yourself  and  the  contractors,  in  my  presence,  that  in 
such  cases  masonry,  as  directed  by  the  City  Engineer,  should  be  allowed  and  paid 
for. 

"Regarding  rock  in  earth  excavation — this  is  provided  for  in  the  specifications 
and  a  price  bid  for  same.  It  consists  of  ledges  of  rock  and  bowlders  of  such  size 
that  require  blasting  to  be  moved.  In  the  case  of  FitzSimons  &  Connell,  there  has 
been  an  addition  to  ledges  of  rock  and  bowlders— a  conglomerate  and  indurated 
clay  which  cannot  possibly  be  moved  without  blasting.  Following  the  injunction 
against  the  contractors,  for  the  use  of  explosives,  an  agreement  was  made  whereby 
part  of  this  conglomerate  has  been  classified  as  rock.  The  consideration  therefore 
was,  that  they  use  only  the  minimum  amount  of  explosives,  and  that  they  became 
responsible  for  all  damage  that  might  occur  in  the  section  where  we  allowed  this 
classification. 

"A  substitution  of  three  rings  of  brick  instead  of  four  was  made  at  that  time  as 
the  material  was  so  hard  that  three  rings  were  absolutely  as  safe  as  four  and  it 
reduced  the  cross  section  that  much.  This  applies  to  the  land  section  known  as 
Section  1.  We  also  substituted  three  rings  instead  of  four  in  the  new  lake  tunnel 
for  the  purpose  of  reducing  the  section  as  much  as  possible.  The  condition  on 
which  this  substitution  was  based  was  that  the  contractors  should  use  Portland 
cement  instead  of  natural,  which  they  are  doing. 

"Regarding  air  locks,  there  has  been  no  necessity  for  the  introduction  of  such 
a  process  to  present  date,  and  in  connection  with  that,  I  would  say  that  the  use  of 
air  compressors  in  tunnel  work  or  shaft  sinking  is  confined  to  the  keeping  back 
of  water  that  is  likely  to  disrupt  the  work.  Where  blasting  is  required  and  natural 
gas  is  encountered,  it  is  obvious  that  the  air  locks  would  be  an  additional  element 
of  danger. 

"I  hand  you  as  per  request,  a  copy  of  the  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court  on 
which  is  noted  the  claim  made  by  Weir,  McKechney  cS:  Company." 


19 


If  this  report  is  not  complete  enough  or  if  there  are  any  other 
points  upon  which  you  desire  information,  I  shall  be  pleased  to  fur- 
nish them  to  you  upon  request. 


Yours  very  truly, 

Joseph  Downey,  Commissioner 


The  necessity  of  extending  the  lake  tunnel  beyond  a  point  two 
and  one-half  miles  from  the  shore,  as  provided  in  the  existing  con- 
tract, either  of  the  present  diameters,  /.  e.,  10  feet,  or  as  suggested 
by  building  two  tunnels  of  8  feet  diameter  each,  is  not  apparent  to 
the  undersigned. 

In  our  opinion  the  relief  confidently  expected  from  the  early 
completion  of  the  Drainage  Canal,  and  the  system  of  intercept- 
ing sewers  to  divert  the  sewage  from  the  lake  into  the  river,  will 
be  afforded  at  approximately  the  same  time  the  new  tunnels  will  be 
in  use,  and  will  then  insure  pure  water  for  all  time  to  come. 

Respectfully  submitted, 

Samuel  S.  Greeley. 
Geo.  C.  Prussing. 


STATE  OF  ILLINOIS. 


SUPREME  COURT— CENTRAL  GRAND  DIVISION. 


At  a  Supreme  Court,  begun  and  held  for  the  Central  Grand 
Division  of  the  State  of  Illinois,  at  Springfield,  on  the  first  Tuesday 
in  January,  A.  D.,  1897. 

PKESENT. 

Benj.  D.  Magruder,  Chief  Justice. 
Jesse  J.  Phillips,  Justice,  Joseph  N.  Carter,  Justice, 

Alfred  M.  Craig,  Justice,  David  J.  Baker,  Justice, 

Jacob  W.  Wilkin,  Justice,  James  H.  Cartwright,  Justice. 

To-wlt:  On  the  12th  day  of  March,  A.  D.,  1897,  there  was  filed 
in  the  ofiice  of  the  clerk  of  said  court  an  opinion  of  said  court,  in 
the  words  and  figures  following: 


Appeal  from 

Appellate  Court, 

1st  District. 


City  of  Chicago, 

vs. 

Weir,  el  aL, 

Craig,  J. 

This  was  an  action  of  assumpsit  brought  by  appellees  who  com- 
pose the  firm  of  Weir,  McKechney  &  Co.,  against  the  city  of  Chi- 
cago to  recover  money  alleged  to  be  due  for  work  done  in  the  con- 
struction of  a  water  tunnel  and  shafts  in  the  city  of  Chicago  under 
a  written  contract. 


21 

The  items  of  plaintiflPs'  account  as  appears  from  the  record  dediict- 
ino-  15  per  cent,  which  does  not  fall  due  under  the  contract  until  the 
completion  of  the  work  are  as  follows: 

1.  Rock  excavation  within  the  cross  section  lines  of  the  tunnel $13,530.50 

2.  Removal  of  rock  taken  from  outside  said  cross  section  lines 3,503.70 

3.  Back  masonry  put  in  during  July,  1890 4,492.25 

4.  Erroneous  deduction  from  previous  back  masonry  (3rd  ring  of  brick).     3,952.50 

5.  Rock  excavation  in  shafts 524.45 

<5.  Extra  work  caused  by  error  in  city  surveys 3,878 .  60 

In  the  Circuit  Court  a  stipulation  was  entered  into  by  counsel  for 
the  respective  parties  to  the  effect  that  on  the  trial  any  evidence 
may  be  introduced  under  the  common  counts,  and  any  relief  granted 
and  recovery  had  by  plaintiffs  which  would  be  competent  if  the 
matters  in  issue  were  specially  pleaded ;  also  that  defendant  might 
plead  the  general  issue  and  introduce  any  competent  evidence 
material  to  the  matters  involved. 

It  was  further  stipulated,  "  A  written  contract,  bearing  date 
October  19,  1895,  was  entered  into  between  the  said  parties  for  the 
construction  of  Section  3  of  the  Northwest  Water  Tunnel  and  shafts, 
as  per  contract,  specifications  and  proposal  or  bid,  copies  of  which 
are  hereto  attached  and  made  a  part  of  this  stipulation.  Under  the 
contract  the  plaintiffs  have  constructed  about  3,000  feet  of  tunnel, 
and  all  the  portion  of  the  tunnel  so  constructed  has  been  through 
solid  rock  where  blasting  has  been  required.  The  drilling  and 
blasting  have  created  cavities  outside  of  the  regular  dimensions  or 
cross  section  lines  of  the  tunnel,  which  cavities  the  city  has  required 
the  contractors  to  fill  with  solid  brick  masonry. 

In  the  interpretation  of  the  said  contract  and  the  carrying  out  of 
the  work,  various  contentions  and  differences  have  arisen  between 
the  parties.  The  points  upon  which  the  differences  have  arisen 
may  be  stated  as  follows: 

"  First.     Whether  or  not  the  contractors  are  entitled  to  compen- 
sation at  the  rate  of  $2.00  for  rock  excavation  per  cubic  yard  within 
the  cross  section  lines  of  the  tunnel   over   and   above   the  cost  per 
lineal  feet  of  tunnel  or  shaft,  where  the  work  is  wholly  in  rock. 
"  Second.     Whether  or  not  the  contractors  are   entitled   to  com- 


22 

pensatiou  for  the  removal  of  rock  which  breaks  outside  the   cross 
section  lines  as  indicated  by  the  Engineer. 

"  Third.  Whether  the  contractors  are  entitled  to  compensation 
for  filling  in  with  solid  brick  masonry  outside  the  cross  section  lines 
of  the  tunnel,  called  technically  '  back  masonry.' 

"  Fourth,  Whether  any  allowance  in  respect  to  the  third  ring  of 
brick  mentioned  in  the  contract,  where  such  third  ring  is  omitted 
by  permission  of  the  Engineer,  should  be  made  either  in  favor  of 
the  contractors  or  of  the  city." 

In  the  Circuit  Court  on  a  trial  without  a  jury  the  court  disal- 
lowed all  the  items  contained  in  plaintiflPs'  account  except  the  last, 
$3,878.60,  for  which  judgment  was  entered.  To  reverse  the  judg- 
ment the  plaintiffs  appealed  to  the  Appellate  Court  and  there  it  was 
held  that  plaintiffs  were  entitled  to  recover  the  first,  fifth  and  sixth 
items  of  the  account,  amounting  to  117,933.55,  but  judgment  was 
rendered  for  $12,003.00  only.  The  deduction  being  made  on 
account  of  money  which  had  been  paid  plaintiffs  for  "back 
masonry."  To  reverse  the  judgment  of  the  Appellate  Court  the 
defendant,  the  city  of  Chicago,  has  appealed  and  plaintiffs  complain 
of  the  deduction  made  by  the  Appellate  Court  by  assigning  cross 
errors. 

The  contract  contained  this  provision,  "  That  the  said  parties  of 
the  first  part,  for  and  in  consideration  of  the  payments  to  be  made 
by  the  said  city  of  Chicago,  as  hereinafter  set  forth,  hereby  cove- 
nant and  agree  to  build  and  construct  a  water  tunnel  and  shafts  in 
said  city  from  a  point  on  North  Green  street  near  Grand  avenue, 
in  a  northwesterly  direction,  to  a  point  in  Section  35,  T.  40,  R.  13, 
E.  of  3d  P.  M.,  according  to  the  terms,  conditions  and  directions  set 
forth  in  the  plans  and  specifications  hereto  attached,  and  made  a 
part  hereof,  same  being  designated  in  said  specifications  as  "  3d 
Section,  8  feet  internal  diameter." 

The  contract  provided  as  follows:  "  The  said  city  of  Chicago 
hereby  covenants  and  agrees,  in  consideration  of  the  covenants  and 
agreements  in  this  contract  specified,  to  be  kept  and  performed  by 
the  said  parties  of  the  first  part,  to  pay  the  said  parties  of  the  first 


23 

part  when  this  contract  shall  be  wholly  carried  out  and  com[)leted 
on  the  part  of  said  contractors  and  when  said  work  shall  have  been 
accepted  by  said  Commissioner  of  Public  Works  tlie  following 
prices,  to-wit: 

Shafts,  ten  (10)  feet  internal  diameter,  sixty-nine  dollars  and 
fifty  cents  (^09.50)  per  lineal  foot. 

Tunnel  in  earth,  eight  (8)  feet  internal  diameter,  sixteen  dollars 
and  sixty-five  cents  ($16.65)  per  lineal  foot. 

Tunnel  in  rock,  eight  (8)  feet  internal  diameter,  fifteen  dollars 
and  ninety  cents  ($15,90)  per  lineal  foot. 

Rock  excavation  over  and  above  cost  of  lineal  foot  of  tunnel  or 
shaft,  two  dollars  ($2.00)  per  cubic  yard. 

Cast  iron  in  covers,  etc.,  five  cents  ($0.05)  per  pound. 

The  principal  question  presented  for  our  consideration  by  the 
record  is  whether  the  plaintilfs  were  entitled  to  recover  two  dollars 
per  cubic  yard  for  rock  excavated  from  the  shafts  and  tunnel  within 
the  cross-section  lines  as  declared  in  the  fourth  clause  of  the  con- 
tract as  above  set  out  providing  for  payment  or  whether  that 
portion  of  the  contract  is  limited  to  cases  where  the  tunnel  is  partly 
in  earth  and  partly  in  rock.  The  disposition  of  this  question 
involves  a  construction  of  the  contract.  It  will  be  observed  that 
the  contract  provides  for  only  two  kinds  of  tunneling,  one  through 
earth,  the  other  through  rock.  There  is  no  clause  in  the  contract 
fixing  any  price  whatever  for  tunneling  through  a  mixture  of 
rock  and  earth  or  a  mixture  of  any  other  substance;  moreover 
it  is  a  significant  fact  that  the  price  per  lineal  foot  fixed  by 
the  contract  for  rock  excavation  is  75  cents  less  than  the  siim  to 
be  paid  for  earth  excavation,  the  former  being  $15.90  per  lineal 
foot  while  the  latter  is  $16.65.  What  explanation  can  be  given  of 
the  fact  that  a  less  price  is  provided  for  digging  through  hard  rock 
than  earth,  unless  that  clause  giving  $2.00  per  cubic  yard  for  the 
rock  to  be  excavated  was  intended  to  make  up  the  difference.  It 
needs  no  evidence  to  establish  the  fact  that  it  costs  more  to  tunnel 
through  rock  than  earth,  but  if  such  evidence  is  required  it  will  be 
found  in  the  record;  Mr.  Jackson  testified,  "Rock  is  more  expensive 


24 

unless  you  liave  very  bad  earth.  Of  Sections  1,  2  and  3,  Section  3 
is  the  most  expensive,  excepting  at  those  points  where  they  encoun- 
ter quicksand.  We  paid  an  extra  price  for  that.  I  should  say  the 
difference  in  the  cost  between  earth  and  rock  was  from  $3  to  $4 
per  foot  on  the  average  material,  as  we  find  it^through  here.  There 
are  places  where  the  rock  would  cost  a  good  deal  more  than  that 
over  the  earth.  As  to  the  rock  being  cheaper  than  the  dirt  in  this 
contract,  I  cannot  account  for  the  contractor's  bid." 

Indeed  it  seems  impossible  to  account  for  the  contractor's  bid  if 
the  theory  of  the  city  is  to  be  adopted.  If  the  plaintiffs  are  allowed 
$2  for  rock  excavation  over  and  above  cost  of  lineal  foot  of  tunnel 
or  shaft  they  will  then  receive  no  more  than  reasonable  pay  for  their 
work  in  view  of  the  amount  ($16.65)  allowed  for  tunneling  in 
earth  which  is  not  claimed  to  be  excessive.  The  amount  of  rock 
taken  out  for  every  lineal  foot  of  tunnel,  as  shown  by  the  evidence  of 
the  City  Engineer,  would  be  2.65  cubic  yards.  At  $2  a  cubic  yard 
that  would  make  an  increase  of  $5.30  per  lineal  foot  of  tunnel.  Add 
this  amount  to  the  price  agreed  to  be  paid  for  tunnel  in  rock 
($15.90)  will  make  $21.20,  which  is  only  $4.55  more  than  the  con- 
tract price  for  tunneling  in  earth,  and  the  engineer  testified  that 
the  work  in  rock  cost  $4  more  than  the  work  in  earth.  As  has 
been  seen,  the  first  clause  of  the  contract  providing  for  the  pay- 
ment for  the  work  provides  that  $69.50  shall  be  paid  per  lineal  foot 
for  shafts  10  feet  internal  diameter.  Second  clause,  tunnel  in  earth 
8  feet  internal  diameter  $16.65  per  lineal  foot.  Third,  tunnel  in 
rock  8  feet  internal  diameter  $15.90  per  lineal  foot.  Fourth,  rock 
excavation  over  and  above  cost  of  lineal  foot  of  tunnel  or  shaft  $2 
per  cubic  yard.  These  provisions  of  the  contract  are  plain  and  free 
from  ambiguity,  and,  giving  the  language  used  in  the  contract  its 
plain  and  ordinary  meaning,  it  seems  evident  that  plaintiffs  were 
clearly  entitled  to  recover  $2  per  cubic  yard  for  all  rock  excavated 
in  addition  to  the  cost  of  lineal  foot  of  tunnel  or  shaft.  But  it  ap- 
pears that  the  specifications  which  are  by  the  terms  of  the  contract 
made  a  part  thereof  contain  the  following  provision  :  "When  the 
tunnel  is  partly  in  earth  and  partly  in  rock  the  contractor  will   be 


25 

paid  an  additional  price  per  cubic  yard  for  rock  excavation  over 
and  above  the  unit  price  per  lineal  foot  of  tunnel  in  earth." 

And  it  is  claimed  that  the  fourth  clause  of  the  contract  providing 
for  payment  of  rock  excavation  was  only  intended  to  apply  when 
the  tunneling  was  partly  in  rock  and  partly  in  earth.  It  seems 
that  the  contract  was  drawn  on  a  printed  form  used  by  the  city 
with  blanks  to  be  filled  in  by  writing.  The  clause  referred  to  from 
the  specifications  is  a  part  of  the  printed  form,  while  that  part  of 
the  contract  heretofore  set  out  providing  for  payment  for  rock  ex- 
cavation is  written  in  the  contract  with  pen  and  ink.  Tbe  law  is 
well  settled  that  where  a  printed  form  is  used  to  be  filled  up  by 
writing  the  written  ])art  will  control  in  the  construction  of  the  con- 
tract.    American  Express  Co.  vs.  Pinckney,  29  111.,  392. 

In  so  far,  therefore,  as  the  clause  in  the  specifications  may  con- 
flict with  that  part  of  the  contract  in  regard  to  rock  excavation  the 
latter  having  been  written  in  the  contract  must  control.  Moreover, 
it  will  be  observed  that  plaintiffs'  contract  calls  for  two  kinds  of 
excavation,  tunnel  in  rock  and  tunnel  in  earth,  while  this  provision 
refers  to  tunnel  that  runs  partly  in  earth  and  partly  in  rock,  and  it 
can  have  no  application  to  the  plaintiffs'  contract  or  the  tunnel 
constructed  by  plaintiff's  which  was  wholly  in  rock.  During  the 
progress  of  the  work  should  the  plaintiff's  run  into  a  formation  com- 
posed partly  of  earth  and  partly  of  rock  and  the  tunnel  would  have 
to  be  constructed  through  that  formation,  then  the  clause  in  the 
specification  would  apply,  but  that  clause  has  no  bearing  whatever 
on  a  tunnel  wholly  in  rock  or  wholly  in  earth.  There  is  another 
fact  which  has  an  important  bearing  in  the  construction  of  the  con- 
tract. As  before  observed  the  contract  declared  that  plaintiff's 
should  be  paid  for  rock  excavation  over  and  above  cost  of  lineal 
foot  of  tunnel  or  shaft  |2.00  per  cubic  yard.  Now  it  is  claimed  on 
behalf  of  the  city  of  Chicago  that  the  above  language  of  the  con- 
tract is  qualified  by  that  clause  of  the  specifications  which  says  : 
"When  the  tunnel  is  partly  in  earth  and  partly  in  rock  the  con- 
tractor will  be  paid  an  additional  price  per  cubic  yard  for  rock 
excavation  over  and  above  the  unit  price  per  lineal  foot  of  tunnel  in 
earth." 


26 

These  two  provisions  upon  due  examination  do  not  seem  to  in- 
clude the  same  thing.  The  clause  in  the  contract  includes  rock 
excavation  both  in  tunnel  and  shaft,  while  the  specifications  make 
provision  for  rock  excavation  in  tunnel  only.  The  clause  in  the 
specifications  as  it  reads  has  no  reference  to  or  application  to  rock 
taken  from  the  shafts,  and,  as  it  cannot  be  applied  to  shafts  without 
disregarding  the  plain  language  used,  it  is  difiicult  to  conceive  upon 
what  ground  it  can  be  contended  the  clause  in  the  specifications 
was  intended  to  limit  or  qualify  that  clause  in  the  contract  relating 
to  rock  excavated  both  from  tunnel  and  shaft. 

The  Appellate  Court  in  arriving  at  the  amount  for  which  the 
plaintiffs  are  entitled  to  judgment,  made  a  deduction  from  the 
amount  they  were  entitled  to  receive  on  account  of  rock  excavation 
at  |2  per  cubic  yard  of  $5,930.35,  which  plaintiffs  had  received 
from  the  city  for  "back  masonry." 

The  plaintiffs  object  to  the  deduction  made  for  two  reasons:  First, 
that  the  city  did  not  assign  error  on  the  judgment  of  the  Circuit 
Court  disallowing  this  claim  ;  secondly,  that  such  sums  were  paid 
under  a  mistake  of  law  and  cannot  be  recovered.  In  blasting  the 
opening  in  the  rock  for  the  tunnel,  owing  to  the  formation  of  the 
rocks,  the  opening  was  in  many  places  made  larger  than  was  re- 
quired for  the  tunnel.  This  space  had  to  be  filled  up  with  brick 
work  which  was  called  "back  masonry."  For  this  work  appellees 
had  asked  and  received  compensation  up  to  a  certain  date  amount- 
ing to  $5,930.35;  as  to  the  first  contention,  it  is  sufiicient  to  say 
that  in  the  Circuit  Court  the  city  was  successful,  and  no  greater 
judgment  was  rendered  than  the  city  conceded  to  be  correct,  hence 
it  had  nothing  to  complain  of  and  no  reason  existed  for  assigning 
cross  errors.  Nor  do  we  think  the  money  was  paid  under  a  mis- 
take of  the  law;  the  money  Avas  paid  on  the  contract  for  work  done 
under  the  contract,  and  it  amounted  to  nothing  more  than  an  over- 
payment, Avhich  might  properly  be  deducted  from  whatever  sum 
was  due  the  plaintiffs  for  any  portion  of  the  work. 

The  fact  that  the  money  may  have  been  received  on  a  claim  for 
back   masonry  is  a  matter  of  no  moment  ;  if  nothing  was  actually 


27 

due  plaintiffs  on  such  a  claim  then  they  would  be  required  to  apply 
the  money  as  a  payment  on  whatever  was  due  them  under  the  con- 
tra(!t. 

In  regard  to  the  question  whether  plaintiffs  are  entitled  to  com- 
pensation for  filling  with  masonry  the  space  between  the  brick  line 
of  the  tunnel  and  the  irregular  excavation  of  the  rock,  that  is  settled 
by  a  plain  provision  found  in  the  specifications  as  follows  :  "In  every 
instance  all  spaces  left  between  the  outside  of  the  regular  brick 
work  and  the  excavation  shall  be  filled  in  with  solid  brick  masonry, 
but  no  allowance  Avill  be  made  for  such  additional  work  and  ma- 
terial."' 

This  is  so  plain  that  argument  in  support  of  the  language  used 
is  unnecessary. 

In  regard  to  an  allowance  where  the  third  ring  of  brick  men- 
tioned in  the  contract  is  omitted  by  permission  of  the  City  Engi- 
neer, the  Appellate  Court  held  that  no  allowance  should  be  made 
either  party,  and  in  this  we  think  the  court  was  correct.  The 
specifications  contain  this  provision  :  "When  the  tunnel  is  in  rock 
the  brick  lining  may,  if  deemed  secure  by  the  City  Engineer,  be 
reduced  one  ring  less  of  brick,  and  in  all  cases  the  masonry  shall 
be  brought  to  a  true  circular  section."  If  an  allowance  had  been 
intended  to  either  party  where  the  third  ring  of  brick  should  be 
omitted  the  contract  or  specifications  would  have  contained  a  clause 
on  this  subject. 

AVe  think  the  judgment  of  the  Appellate  Court  was  correct  and  it 
will  be  affirmed.  -  Affirmed. 


>     !^  I 


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